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For centuries, scientists have grappled with the enigma of the <keyword id="42440" type="General" weightage="50" keywordseo="moon" source="Orion">Moon</keyword>'s birth. The widely accepted theory proposes that approximately 4.5 billion years ago, a colossal collision, termed the "giant impact," unfolded between the fledgling <keyword id="6359982" type="General" weightage="100" keywordseo="earth" source="Orion">Earth</keyword>, known as <keyword id="22883" type="General" weightage="50" keywordseo="gaia" source="Orion">Gaia</keyword>, and a proto-planet the size of <keyword id="47638" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="mars" source="Orion">Mars</keyword> named <keyword id="1165544" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="theia" source="Orion">Theia</keyword>. This catastrophic encounter between Gaia and Theia resulted in a substantial amount of planetary debris, which, in all likelihood, came together to give rise to our lunar companion.<br /><br />Yet, the quandary lies in the remarkable similarity in composition between Earth and the Moon, casting doubt on this conventional theory of lunar genesis. Some scientists have also pondered whether this cosmic clash may have thoroughly mixed Earth's materials in the distant past, but we've lacked definitive evidence to confirm this hypothesis. Fortunately, recent research has illuminated these perplexing theories.<br /><br />By employing an inventive computational fluid dynamics approach referred to as Meshless Finite Mass, researchers have successfully simulated how materials on and within the Earth may have intermingled and diffused post the colossal impact. Intriguingly, the team has ascertained that the upper <keyword id="1609094" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="mantle" source="Orion">mantle</keyword> of the Earth underwent a transformation, forming a molten ocean containing materials from both Gaia and Theia, while the lower mantle has remained relatively untouched.<br /><br />This dichotomy within the mantle may still endure to this day. The lower mantle of the Earth could still be predominantly composed of Gaian materials from before the impact, characterised by a distinct elemental composition featuring higher silicon content, in contrast to the upper mantle.<br /><br />As a result, it is proposed that, contrary to the previous notion of Earth becoming more uniform after the Moon-forming collision, this momentous event may have initiated heterogeneity within the early mantle, thus establishing the groundwork for the Earth's geological evolution over the course of 4.5 billion years.<br /><br />Another puzzle within Earth's inner depths pertains to the origin of Large Low Velocity Provinces (LLVPs), which are peculiar regions extending for thousands of kilometres at the base of the mantle. These regions significantly retard the speed of seismic waves passing through them, but their origins have remained shrouded in mystery.<br /><br />The researchers have put forward the notion that LLVPs may have evolved from Theian materials that infiltrated the lower mantle of Gaia. After scrutinising prior simulations of giant impacts and conducting fresh, high-precision simulations, the research team has uncovered that a substantial amount of Theian mantle material, approximately 2% of Earth's mass, found its way into Gaia's lower mantle. This dense, iron-rich Theian material descended to the lowermost reaches of the mantle, eventually crystallising into the stable LLVP regions over a staggering 4.5 billion years of geological transformations.<br /><br />All in all, the striking diversity in the Earth's interior beckons intriguing implications. This newfound understanding not only deepens our grasp of mantle evolution, the chronicles of supercontinents, and the intricacies of Earth's tectonic plates but also furnishes insights into the ancient Earth, Gaia, and Theia, thereby shedding light on the entire narrative of inner <keyword id="52393" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="solar-system" source="Orion">solar system</keyword> formation.<br /><br />Moreover, this fresh comprehension of Earth's profound heterogeneity also provides additional clues concerning the formation of features like Hawaii and Iceland, which likely emerged from mantle plumes—elongated, upward-moving thermal currents driven by mantle convection. Geochemists have unearthed that these regions house components that deviate from the usual surface materials, thereby unveiling vestiges of heterogeneity in the deep mantle, traces of which date back more than 4.5 billion years.<br />

Is there really another planet hiding deep inside our Earth?

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Scientists think a planet may have crashed into  Earth 4.5 billion years ago, creating the moon.</li><li>This alien planet, Theia, was thought to have completely disappeared in the collision.</li></ul><p>Continent-sized chunks of an alien world may be hiding deep within our planet — and it could explain the weird structures that appear to be surrounding Earth's core.</p><p>Scientists have long hypothesized that a Mars-sized planet called Theia <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/moon-formed-in-head-on-collision-2016-1">crashed into Earth</a> 4.5 billion years ago, leading to the creation of the moon.</p><p>But this theory has been difficult to prove, in part because Theia was long thought to have disappeared during the collision.</p><p>Now a supercomputer simulation provides evidence that <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/pieces-planet-theia-buried-in-earth-mantle-2021-4">chunks of Theia</a> may still survive in the boundary between our planet's mantle and the core.</p><p>As well as shedding new light on the inner workings of our planet, scientists hope they will one day have access to these slabs of alien rock to reveal, once and for all, how our moon formed.</p><h2>A 4.5 billion-year-old mystery</h2><p>Despite all of our technological advances, we still don't know exactly how the moon was created.</p><p>The leading theory among planetary scientists is called the "giant impact" hypothesis, whereby a theoretical planet called Theia barreled into the early Earth at its very beginning.</p><p>According to this theory, the collision caused rocks to spray into the cosmos, some of which started swirling together in Earth's orbit, ultimately leading to the creation of the moon.</p><div type="image" title="An animation shows Theia crashing into the moon." height="338" width="600" msid="104896310" hostid="261" sizebytes="6350"></div><p>The whole process may have taken under a day, per <a target="_blank" href="https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/collision-may-have-formed-the-moon-in-mere-hours-simulations-reveal/">a 2021 study.</a></p><p>The problem is that this is very difficult to prove: we only have secondhand evidence that Theia existed. The assumption has long been that Theia melded into moon, the Earth's mantle, and its core, in effect disappearing completely.</p><p>But this new study offers hope that parts of the alien planet survived at the heart of the Earth.</p><h2>Theia may be behind a mysterious anomaly in Earth's mantle</h2><p>There's a very bizarre region inside the Earth's mantle that scientists haven't been able to explain: this is called the <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/earths-mysterious-core-is-a-lot-weirder-than-you-think-2023-9">core-mantle boundary</a>.</p><p>Right at the limit between the mantle and the core, the temperature shoots up. And seismic waves — which are used by geologists to get a sense of what is going on inside our planet — mysteriously slow down.</p><p>This has prompted scientists to think there may be something wrapped around the core, some unexplained layer, that keeps the very heart of our planet warm.</p><p>Previous theories have suggested this core-mantle boundary could be made up of <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/earth-core-encased-by-ancient-ocean-mountains-taller-everest-2023-9">bits of ancient ocean floors</a>. But some things don't quite line up.</p><div type="image" title="An illustration shows the Earth's core wrapped in red matter representing a newly discovered structure that may be wrapping around the Earth's core. Above the core, seismic waves from earthquakes are shown bouncing off of the structure to the detector places in Antartica." height="1024" width="1024" msid="104896311" hostid="261" sizebytes="54170"></div><p>For instance, some lava that is found at the surface, which is thought to have traveled from the core-mantle boundary, is believed to be 4.5 billion years old — or about as old as the collision.</p><p>That's likely too old to belong to an ocean floor, Hongping Deng, a professor of computational physics from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the lead author on the study, told Insider Wednesday.</p><p>Previous research had also found that ancient lava from magma plumes in Iceland and Samoa carried <a target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" class="c-link" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/remains-impact-created-moon-may-lie-deep-within-earth">bizarre radioactive signatures</a> that would make more sense if they came from the ancient alien planet. The findings suggested parts of Theia, that could be <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/pieces-planet-theia-buried-in-earth-mantle-2021-4?r=US&amp;IR=T">millions of times</a> larger than Mount Everest, could have sunk deep in our planet's mantle.</p><p>This prompted Deng and his co-authors to investigate whether the mysterious boundary could be, at least in part, made up of old bits of Theia using one of the most advanced computer simulations of the collision ever designed.</p><p>This simulation tracked 100 million virtual particles from the moment Theia would have crashed into the Earth through to millions of years later, study author Vincent Eke, a professor of cosmological computing at Durham University, UK, told Insider.</p><p>"The biggest simulations that we run, they will be going for a few months on a supercomputer," he said.</p><p>Using these simulations, the scientists were able to show that some fragments of Theia — roughly 2% of the whole mass of the Earth —could have survived inside the Earth, slowly sinking through the mantle, said Deng.</p><p>These line up suspiciously with the location of the core-mantle boundary today, he said.</p><p>"One of the most exciting things is that Theia, this body that is supposed to have smashed into the early Earth, is becoming more tangible," Christian Schroeder, a planetary scientist at the University of Stirling who was not involved in the study, told Insider Tuesday.</p><p>"It's exciting to see that it is becoming real and there's something we can investigate," he told Insider.</p><h2>Clues to cracking the case are locked in the mantle</h2><p>The findings, published in the peer-reviewed journal Nature, provide hope that a sample of Theia could still be lurking inside our planet.</p><p>"It means that if you dig enough in the Earth, we can find something that's not belonging to Earth," Deng said.</p><p>The problem is that the core-mantle boundary is very far from the surface — about 1,800 miles. And even if we were able to dig that deep, the punishing temperatures and crushing pressure would likely destroy any tools that we would attempt to send down there for sampling.</p><p>Still, the peculiar lava that could come from Theia may provide clues about its composition.</p><p>Deng also hopes the simulation can be pushed even further — and could eventually even allow us to understand where Theia came from, how it traveled through time, and what the early solar system looked like.</p><p>Deng, however, warns that more research is needed to confirm whether hypothesis in the paper is correct.</p><p>"It's a very bold idea, I'll give you that. [Bringing] something that's 4.5 billion years old to present-day Earth is crazy," said Deng.</p><p>"If everything pulls together, then that would be amazing. If it doesn't, that's science," he said.</p>

Chunks of an alien world could be hidden deep within our planet, say scientists 

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Our moon has been our constant companion for billions of years. </li><li>But we're still not sure how it came to be, though scientists have a few theories. </li></ul><p>With the likes of NASA and <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-says-x-will-display-article-headlines-again-2023-11?r=US&amp;IR=T">Elon Musk</a> vying to <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-helping-private-companies-build-business-moon-make-lunar-billions-2023-6">land on the moon</a> within the next five years, you would think we would know everything about our satellite.</p><p>But there remain a vast number of unanswered questions, including one of the most fundamental: how did the moon first come to be?</p><p>That has been surprisingly difficult to answer, and scientists still aren't certain how it happened.</p><p>But they have theories, the most prominent of which is arguably the most bizarre as it involves a <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/how-moon-formed-collisions-2017-1">theoretical alien planet</a> crashing into the Earth — then disappearing —  more than 4 billion years ago.</p><p>Here are four leading theories of how the<a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/invisible-force-earth-creating-water-on-the-moon-study-electrons-2023-9"> moon</a> was formed, and why the secret to uncovering the truth could lie deep within our planet.</p><h2>The moon wandered by the Earth and was captured into its orbit</h2><p>According to the capture theory, the moon was wandering through the universe like a giant <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/metal-ball-ocean-harvard-professor-alien-industrial-waste-loeb-spherule-2023-11?r=US&amp;IR=T">asteroid</a>. One day, it passed within the vicinity of Earth and was captured into its orbit, staying with it ever since.</p><p>This isn't altogether impossible. After all, this is how <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/new-close-up-photos-mars-moon-deimos-reveal-true-origins-2023-4">Mars</a> is thought to have captured its moons Phobos and Deimos.</p><div type="image" title="Mars moons" height="125" width="402" msid="105446480" hostid="261" sizebytes="2828"></div><p>In the case of the Earth, however, the capture theory is very unlikely. One reason is that our moon is very big — almost the size of Mars itself.</p><p>An object of that size "would be more likely to impact into the planet rather than just to be captured in orbit," Sara Russell, a professor of planetary sciences at the Natural History Museum, told Business Insider.</p><p>Lunar samples brought back during the Apollo missions put a final nail in that hypothesis.</p><p>Scientists analyzed the isotope makeup of these samples. Isotopes are forms of atoms that have the same chemical function, but carry a different number of neutrons.</p><p>"We use isotopes as a fingerprint, which are very distinctive," Russell said.</p><p>When space rocks form independently, it's easy to tell them apart with isotopes. A <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/relativity-space-3d-printed-rocket-mars-musk-spacex-bezos-launch-2023-3?_gl=1*13p0krb*_ga*MTc3NTE4NzkyNC4xNjg0MTQxMjIx*_ga_E21CV80ZCZ*MTcwMDczNDkzNC40NjEuMS4xNzAwNzM0OTM0LjYwLjAuMA..&amp;r=US&amp;IR=T">Mars</a> rock looks different from an Earth rock for instance.</p><p>But the moon it turns out, is made up of the same isotopes as the Earth.</p><p>"That means they must be genetically linked somehow because every other body in the solar system has got a different isotope signature," she said.</p><div type="image" title="Pictures taken by a satellite show the moon crossing the Earth." height="554" width="985" msid="105446482" hostid="261" sizebytes="22262"></div><h2><strong>The moon formed alongside the Earth</strong></h2><p>The accretion hypothesis ties the moon to the birth of the Earth. This theory suggests both objects emerged from the same cosmic cloud of dust around 4.6 billion years ago.</p><p>The Earth, per that theory, would have been the greedier twin, pulling more material to its side during its early accretion, which led to its bigger size, molten core, and stronger gravity. The moon, then, would have been pulled into Earth's orbit.</p><p>The problem is that while the moon and the Earth share isotopes, the way they put them together is very different. The moon is made up of much less sodium and iron than the Earth, for instance.</p><p>"You would expect that if it formed from the same cloud, the same mixture of material, it would end up with roughly the same composition, it might just be smaller," said Russel.</p><p>"But actually, it's completely different," she said.</p><h2>The moon was a glob of material shed by the Earth as it started spinning</h2><p>Another theory for the formation of our constant companion is not very flattering. This one argues that the moon is just a bit of excess baby fat our Earth shed early on in its life.</p><div type="image" title="a picture shows the moon showing against the daylight sky behind a mountain ridge." height="693" width="1024" msid="105446484" hostid="261" sizebytes="29464"></div><p>Per the fission theory, as the Earth started spinning faster, part of its material spun off, and then miraculously stopped exactly where it needed to be to create a body in Earth's orbit.</p><p>In this case, physics is not on the side of this theory.</p><p>It's very difficult to shed such a big mass of rock, no matter how quickly the planet was spinning at the time, said Russell.</p><p>"It might happen for an asteroid, but not something as big as the planet," she said.</p><p>Another issue with that theory is that <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/moon-missions-why-astronauts-have-not-returned-2018-7?r=US&amp;IR=T">the moon</a> would have been much more likely to fly off toward the sun or fall back to Earth than to stay in orbit.</p><h2>A Mars-sized planet crashed into the early Earth</h2><p>That leaves us with one last hypothesis, the giant impact theory. While this hypothesis has the most scientific support, it is arguably the one that requires the biggest leap of the imagination.</p><p>The theory suggests that around 4.5 billion years ago, a Mars-sized planet called <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/alien-planet-inside-earth-explain-where-moon-comes-from-theia-2023-11">Theia</a> crossed paths with a new Earth that had just started accreting.</p><p>The collision between the two planets created a humongous explosion, 100 million times bigger than the impact that wiped out the dinosaurs.</p><div type="image" title="An animation shows Theia crashing into the moon." height="338" width="600" msid="105446486" hostid="261" sizebytes="6350"></div><p>Per this theory, the blow was so brutal that Theia kicked some of the Earth's material into space, which eventually turned into the moon. Theia disappeared by melting into the mess of molten rock that would eventually become the Earth and the moon as we know them today.</p><p>The subtle difference between the Earth and the moon, then, would be explained by Theia grazing the Earth's mantle but avoiding its iron core, which could explain why the moon is so iron-poor, per Russell.</p><p>The whole process may have taken <a target="_blank" href="https://www.nasa.gov/solar-system/collision-may-have-formed-the-moon-in-mere-hours-simulations-reveal/">only a few hours</a>, according to NASA.</p><p>While this sounds far-fetched, thanks to the Apollo samples, it has quickly become the leading theory for how the moon formed.</p><p>"That is one of the absolute triumphs of <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/apollo-11-facts-about-nasa-moon-landing-2019-7?r=US&amp;IR=T">the Apollo missions</a>," said Russell. "Before Apollo, people honestly had no clue which of these models was the cause of the formation of the moon," she said.</p><p>"Apollo showed clearly that the moon has such great similarities to each other, that they must be somehow linked in some way," she said.</p><p>Still, the giant-impact theory is not without its issues. We have no idea where Theia came from and the planet left no evidence behind.</p><p>Another issue is that it's not quite clear why the moon and the Earth would be so similar if they picked up bits of Theia along the way. Models suggest more than 60% of the moon should be made up of Theia, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.space.com/19275-moon-formation.html">per Space.com</a>.</p><p>One possibility is that at the point of impact, Theia mixed in so thoroughly with both the Earth and the moon that these are virtually indistinguishable.</p><p>Another possibility is that Theia was almost a twin of the Earth, created in the same corner of the solar system.</p><p>Scientists are working to reconcile these finer points of the giant-impact theory. Modeling can explore the angle at which the planet hit the Earth and how its material mixed in with the Earth's mantle.</p><p>A recent study suggested that <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/alien-planet-inside-earth-explain-where-moon-comes-from-theia-2023-11?r=US&amp;IR=T">continent-sized chunks of an alien world may be hiding deep within our planet</a> — and it could explain the weird structures that appear to be surrounding Earth's core.</p><p>Hongping Deng, a professor of computational physics from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, ran computer simulations tracking 100 million virtual particles from the moment Theia may have crashed into the Earth through to millions of years later.</p><p>Using these simulations, the scientists were able to show that some fragments of Theia — roughly 2% of the whole mass of the Earth —could have survived inside our planet, slowly sinking through the mantle.</p><div type="image" title="An artist's impression shows an astronaut sitting back while taking a picture of the Earth rising behind the surface of the moon with a smartphone." height="1000" width="2000" msid="105446489" hostid="261" sizebytes="253572"></div><h2>As humans return to the moon, they can bring back precious samples</h2><p>An upcoming slew of planned missions to the moon, including NASA's Artemis mission to bring astronauts to the lunar surface for the first time in more than 50 years, could also offer opportunities to return more samples from the moon.</p><p>"Everyone's really excited about Artemis at the moment and having NASA and ESA, returning to the moon," said Russell.</p><p>"There's loads of stuff that we're gonna find out in the next decade or so," she said.</p>

The mystery of how the moon formed is still puzzling scientists. The secret could lie deep within our planet.

<ul class="summary-list"><li><em>This post originally appeared in the Insider Today newsletter.</em></li></ul><p><strong>Almost Friday! </strong>Nvidia's adding to its impressive lineup with a <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nvidia-new-blackwell-chip-cost-30000-to-40000-jensen-huang-2024-3"><u>new chip that'll cost at least $30,000</u></a>. But do you know what's arguably more impressive? CEO Jensen Huang's <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/jensen-huang-wardrobe-black-leather-jackets-signature-look-2024-3"><u>collection of leather jackets</u></a>.</p><p>In today's big story, we've made a March Madness bracket to decide the biggest topics in business, tech, and innovation, and <a target="_blank" href="https://forms.gle/c2VANLpbeGb2Ywx87"><u>we need you to vote</u></a>.</p><p><strong>What's on deck:</strong></p><ul><li><p><strong>Markets:</strong> Goldman Sachs <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/goldman-sachs-internal-memo-women-leaders-russell-horwitz-2024-3"><u>has some talking points</u></a> for criticism that it's bleeding women leaders.</p></li><li><p><strong>Tech:</strong> Reddit is going public, but advertisers say it <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/reddit-ipo-hinges-on-improving-performance-for-advertisers-2024-3"><u>still has to prove its worth to them</u></a>.</p></li><li><p><strong>Business:</strong> Workers are getting way more productive — <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/employee-productivity-booming-workers-jobs-ai-stock-market-gdp-2024-3"><u>and it's not because of AI</u></a>.</p></li></ul><p>But first, who ya got in the bracket?</p><p><strong><em>If this was forwarded to you, </em></strong><a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/subscription/newsletter/insider-today"><strong><em><u>sign up here.</u></em></strong></a></p><h3>The big story</h3><h2><strong>Bracket bonanza</strong></h2><div type="image" title="A grid with images representing AI, weight-loss drugs, US-China relations, and interest rates." height="900" width="1200" msid="108685524" hostid="261"></div><p><strong>Welcome to the madness.</strong></p><p>College basketball takes center stage this weekend with the first rounds of the men's and women's championship tournaments kicking off today and tomorrow, respectively.</p><p>The tourneys, which include 68 teams in a win-or-go-home format, are largely viewed as one of the best sporting events in the US.</p><p>Insider Today is getting in on the fun with a business-focused bracket <a target="_blank" href="https://forms.gle/c2VANLpbeGb2Ywx87"><u>where readers determine a winner</u></a>.</p><p>Below are eight of the biggest storylines we're following in business, tech, and innovation. It's not an all-encompassing list, but these topics cover some of the top trends we're watching.</p><p>Just like the tournament, the topics are seeded. In each matchup, vote for the trend you feel is more important. We'll share the results next week and conduct another round of voting for the semifinals.</p><p><strong>[1] The AI race vs. [8] The Ozempic effect: </strong>Identifying the top seed wasn't tricky. Artificial intelligence is all anyone wants to discuss. The tech is all-encompassing, the top focus of the biggest companies in the world, and could upend everything we do. But weight-loss drugs are also projected to have some <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/us-economy-faster-growth-ozempic-glp-1-weight-loss-drugs-2024-2"><u>massive economic implications</u></a>. And they're reshaping people's relationship with food.</p><p><strong>[2] Interest rates vs. [7] US-China relations: </strong>The biggest question in the market is when the Federal Reserve will lower rates. A cut could open up the M&amp;A and IPO markets, boost stocks, and give consumers relief. China doesn't have as direct an impact on US businesses as interest rates, but it's not far behind. Just look at the <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/china-xi-jinping-crush-tesla-elon-musk-american-ev-industry-2024-2"><u>EV market</u></a>.</p><p><strong>[3] US presidential election vs. [6] Boomers' retirement: </strong>This year's presidential election might be a rematch, but both candidates come with <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/presidential-us-election-rematch-biden-trump-top-themes-for-voters-2024-3"><u>plenty of surprises</u></a>. Speaking of older people, boomers are entering their retirement era, which has many <a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/boomer-wealth-transfer-myth-dont-count-on-inheritance-estate-planning-2023-10"><u>knock-on effects.</u></a></p><p><strong>[4] Future of social media vs. [5] Streaming wars: </strong>A potential TikTok ban. The future of X under Elon Musk. Instagram's comeback. Social media is at a unique crossroads. Another form of entertainment — movies and television — has also reached a tipping point. And it's not just about changing how we watch TV, but <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/this-chart-shows-ads-streaming-netflix-hulu-max-hbo-disney-2024-2"><u>how advertisers reach us</u></a>.<br /><br /><a target="_blank" href="https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSeqavyXrgj1KbpbwIBDFfwx1r4mhBXscuRrkahjjGQz_2liKw/viewform"><strong>Vote here</strong></a></p><h2>3 things in markets</h2><div type="image" title="US Federal Reserve Board Chairman Jerome Powell speaks during a news conference at the headquarters of the Federal Reserve on January 31, 2024 in Washington, DC." height="2731" width="4096" msid="108685526" hostid="261"></div><ol><li><p><strong>The Fed holds the line on interest rates.</strong> The central bank continued <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/did-fed-cut-interest-rates-march-meeting-continues-pause-inflation-2024-3"><u>its pause on interest rate hikes</u></a>. Fed Chair Jerome Powell said he's not looking too far ahead and wants more data "that gives us higher confidence that inflation is moving toward 2%."</p></li><li><p><strong>How November's election will impact stocks. </strong>UBS<strong> </strong>mapped out how four different election outcomes — like a blue or red sweep — <a target="_blank" href="https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/biden-trump-presidential-election-stock-market-impact-tariffs-regulation-taxes-2024-3"><u>would affect stocks</u></a>. "While we are obliged to remind investors that portfolio construction is best treated as an apolitical exercise, the next eight months are likely to be exceptionally distracting," the bank wrote in its report.</p></li><li><p><strong>Goldman Sachs is in damage-control mode amid criticism that it's bleeding female leaders. </strong>In a <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/goldman-sachs-internal-memo-women-leaders-russell-horwitz-2024-3"><u>12-point memo</u></a> obtained by BI, chief of staff Russell Horwitz admitted that the firm hasn't gone far enough to advance female employees' careers. He was responding to a Wall Street Journal story that detailed concerns about Goldman Sachs' lack of senior female leaders.</p></li></ol><h2><strong>3 things in tech</strong></h2><div type="image" title="Steve Huffman photo illustration." height="1334" width="1778" msid="108685529" hostid="261"></div><ol><li><p><strong>The "front page of the internet" is ready to go public. </strong>Reddit is set to list on the New York Stock Exchange today. It's priced its initial public offering at <a target="_blank" href="https://markets.businessinsider.com/news/stocks/reddit-ipo-price-stock-offering-social-media-retail-2024-3"><u>$34 a share</u></a>, valuing the social media platform at $6.4 billion.</p></li><li><p><strong>AI investments are getting too frothy for VCs. </strong>As the AI gold rush overtakes Silicon Valley, venture capitalists <a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/ai-investments-vcs-startups-valuations-2024-3"><u>are scrambling</u></a> to get in on the action. Some investors, however, told BI they're struggling to find viable deals as prices skyrocket.</p></li><li><p><strong>Microsoft's latest hiring spree came amid concerns about OpenAI. </strong>The tech giant said on Tuesday that it had snapped up Inflection CEO Mustafa Suleyman and cofounder Karén Simonyan to lead a new AI team. It's a sign <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/microsoft-hired-inflection-team-amid-board-concerns-about-openai-2024-3"><u>Microsoft wants to be less reliant on OpenAI</u></a> after its CEO Sam Altman was dramatically ousted and then rehired in November, insiders told BI.</p></li></ol><h2><strong>3 things in business</strong></h2><div type="image" title="An illustration of a worker stepping up on a bar graph." height="1000" width="2000" msid="108685531" hostid="261"></div><ol><li><p><strong>America's productivity is soaring — and it's not thanks to AI. </strong>Strong economic growth and a stable labor market have <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/employee-productivity-booming-workers-jobs-ai-stock-market-gdp-2024-3"><u>workers getting better and more efficient at their jobs</u></a>. That's great news for the US economy, companies, those worried about inflation, and even the stock market.</p></li><li><p><strong>Amazon is quietly developing a new AI search tool. </strong>Internally called <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/project-theia-amazon-ai-tool-shopping-inspiration-2024-3"><u>Project Theia, the new feature can create images</u></a> based on shopper queries and product photos. It's intended to help Amazon become a source of shopping inspiration.</p></li><li><p><strong>Elon Musk's Neuralink just revealed its first human trial patient. </strong>Noland Arbaugh, a 29-year-old quadriplegic, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/neuralink-first-human-trial-patient-quadriplegic-elon-musk-x-2024-3"><u>received a brain-chip implant</u></a> in January. In a livestream on X Wednesday he said the chip is "not perfect," but has already improved his life by giving him the ability to play video games for hours on end without having to rely on his family members.</p></li></ol><h2><strong>What's happening today</strong></h2><ul><li><p><strong>Today's earnings: </strong>FedEx, Nike, and other <a target="_blank" href="https://markets.businessinsider.com/earnings-calendar"><u>companies are reporting</u></a>.</p></li></ul><p><strong>The Insider Today team: </strong><a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/author/dan-defrancesco">Dan DeFrancesco</a>, deputy editor and anchor, in New York. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/author/hallam-bullock">Hallam Bullock</a>, editor, in London. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/author/jordan-parker-erb">Jordan Parker Erb</a>, editor, in New York. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/author/george-glover">George Glover</a>, reporter, in London.</p>

It's March Madness time &mdash; and we mean business

<ul><li><strong>The startup is leading the way in developing a chemical-free process to recycle lithium-ion batteries. <br /></strong></li><li><strong>The technology eliminates the need for chemicals and reduces costs when compared to the traditional method. <br /></strong></li><li><strong>Its Bengaluru facility can recycle 6% of India's demand for recycling lithium-ion batteries.</strong></li></ul><keyword id="14328849" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="Metastable-Materials" source="Orion">Metastable Materials</keyword>, a startup that specializes in recycling lithium-ion batteries using advanced technology, has secured seed funding. The funding round was led by Surge, Sequoia Capital India and Southeast Asia's rapid scale-up programme.<br /><br />The funding round also saw participation from deep-tech venture capital firm Speciale Invest, Theia Ventures, and several other individual investors. The details of the funds raised were not disclosed. <br /><br />Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries power millions of vehicles worldwide, and the demand for them is growing rapidly. This has led to an industry for Li-ion battery recycling, currently valued at $4.6 billion, which is expected to grow at least five times by 2030. <br /><br />“Natural resources are finite and our collective vision of a more sustainable future will depend on our ability to first recycle and second, to do so in a way that is cost efficient, scalable and environmentally friendly,” says Shubham Vishvakarma, founder, Metastable. <br /><br />Many countries, including the EU, plan to introduce regulations to ensure that Li-ion batteries can be recycled or repurposed at the end of their life. Despite the importance of recycling to retrieve and reuse metals from discarded Li-ion batteries, the existing methods face several obstacles. These include difficulties in logistics, such as the transportation of bulky Li-ion batteries to recycling plants, which can be expensive due to the high flammability of Lithium and stringent rules governing its packaging.<br /><br />The extraction of metals from Li-ion batteries is a complex procedure that involves disassembling, segregating, and retrieving them, necessitating substantial investments in facilities and engineering, which has been difficult for companies to execute profitably on a large scale. <br /><br />To address these challenges, Metastable introduced the world's first chemical-free Integrated Carbothermal Reduction process for recycling and extracting valuable materials like copper, aluminum, cobalt, nickel, and lithium from the batteries. <br /><br />This technology significantly reduces capital and operational costs compared to traditional battery recycling methods, while achieving a recovery rate of more than 90%.<br /><br />"We’re proud to be pioneering a solution that safeguards our future, from providing a sustainable supply of metals for the manufacture of EV batteries to setting new benchmarks for the way metals are recycled, paving the way for new technologies and innovations that will have the power to truly move the needle in fighting climate change,” says Vishvakarma. <br /><br />Metastable is developing safe storage and packaging solutions for used batteries to transport them from consumers to recycling facilities, as the current methods in India do not meet international standards. Their packaging is designed to reduce the risk of fire during transportation with a heat-resistant structure. <br /><br />The company is expanding its battery recycling capabilities and has opened a facility in Bengaluru that can process up to 1,500 tonnes of material annually, meeting 6% of India's recycling demand for Li-ion batteries. The startup plans to use the new funding to recruit staff to support manufacturing, industrial engineering, supply chain management, and day-to-day operations.<br /><br />SEE ALSO: <br /><a target="_blank" class="c-link c-message_attachment__title_link" href="https://www.businessinsider.in/business/auto/news/passenger-vehicle-sales-steady-commercial-vehicles-drive-growth-in-march/articleshow/99206199.cms">Passenger vehicle sales steady, commercial vehicles drive growth in March</a><br /><a target="_blank" class="c-link c-message_attachment__title_link" href="https://www.businessinsider.in/tech/news/stanford-students-develop-ar-glasses-that-let-you-talk-to-chatgpt-in-real-time/articleshow/99205100.cms">Stanford students develop AR glasses that let you talk to ChatGPT in real time</a><br />

Recycling startup Metastable Materials secures seed funding from Sequoia India's Surge & others

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Two gigantic blobs of dense rock hundreds of miles tall sit deep inside <keyword id="6359982" type="LOCATION" weightage="60" keywordseo="earth">Earth</keyword>.</li><li>New research suggests these blobs are remnants of a planet that hit Earth 4.5 billion years ago.</li><li>The collision of Earth and this ancient planet, called Theia, may have helped create the <keyword id="42440" type="PERSON" weightage="60" keywordseo="Moon">moon</keyword>.</li></ul><p>If you were to peer deep under Earth's crust, you'd spot two giant blobs of rock cupping the planet's core like a pair of hands.</p><p>The source of these mysterious continent-sized formations - one under the Pacific Ocean, the other under Africa -has baffled geologists for four decades. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-018-0225-2">Some experts have suggested</a> that the massive rocks are fragments of tectonic plates that got trapped under their counterparts.</p><p>But according to <a href="https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/1980.pdf">new research</a>, their origin may be otherworldly.</p><p>A group of scientists from Arizona State University suggested the blobs are remnants of a "Mars-sized planetary embryo" named Theia, which struck Earth in its infancy 4.5 billion years ago. The impact is thought to have turned Earth's surface into a sea of fiery magma and caused it to shoot out enough planetary debris to create the moon. </p><p>Qian Yuan, the lead researcher behind the findings, studies geodynamics at ASU. He thinks that following the ancient collision, parts of Theia may have sunk and gotten preserved deep in our planet's mantle - the semisolid layer between Earth's crust and core, he said.</p><p>Those pieces are "millions of times larger than Mount Everest in terms of volume," Yuan told Insider. </p><h2>Dense areas up to 621 miles in height</h2><p>Geologists discovered these chunks - their technical name is large low-shear-velocity provinces - by sending seismic waves down into the planet. Under both Africa and the Pacific Ocean, the speed of these seismic waves slowed to a crawl, suggesting an area of rock denser than its surroundings. The animation below, based on a <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LLSVP.gif">2016 analysis</a>, shows the size of these areas.</p><a title="Sanne.cottaar, CC BY-SA 4.0 &lt;https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commonsommons" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LLSVP.gif"><div type="image" title="LLSVP" height="450" width="512" msid="81877760" hostid="261"></div></a><p>According to Yuan, these blobs are between 1.5 and 3.5% more dense than the rest of Earth's mantle, and hotter.</p><p>If the planet Theia was rich in iron and highly dense, Yuan's models showed, any pieces of it that broke off when it hit Earth would have sunk deep into our planet's mantle. There, they could have accumulated undisturbed, rather than getting mixed into the rest of the mantle.</p><p>It's also possible denser <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/93JB03403">chunks of Earth's crust</a> sank into the mantle and joined them, contributing to the blobs' growth over time, Yuan said. </p><div type="image" title="earth core crust mantle layers shutterstock" height="1250" width="2000" msid="81877761" hostid="261"></div><p>Figuring out what these slabs are made of is challenging. Their deepest parts are 1,800 miles under our feet, in the part of the mantle closest to Earth's outer core. They're 621 miles (1,000 kilometers) high and two to three times wider than they are tall. </p><p>But scientists have figured out that plumes of hot rock and magma from some Icelandic and Samoan volcanoes <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11141">came from these blobs</a>. By analyzing this magma's makeup, researchers can glean insight into the composition of these mysterious buried chunks. According to a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009281919300509">2019 study</a>, some elements in the volcanic plumes date back to about 4.5 billion years ago - when Theia supposedly hit Earth.</p><h2>When planets collide</h2><div type="image" title="the moon surface" height="900" width="1600" msid="81877762" hostid="261"></div><p>The idea that the impact between a tiny planet and Earth helped form the moon has been around for <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017JE005333#jgre20813-bib-0007">more than 45 years</a>. But a problem with that hypothesis is that scientists haven't found any evidence of Theia's existence.</p><p><a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/351/6272/493">A 2016 study</a> suggested that's because Earth's and Theia's cores fused together. Another idea, <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017JE005333">put forward in 2018,</a> posits that when the planets collided, both were "almost completely vaporized," Yuan said. According to that thinking, Earth became a rapidly spinning mass of molten and vaporized rock called a synestia, then <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180228103238.htm">collapsed back into a molten planet</a>. Part of that spinning mass became the moon, and Theia was no more.</p><p>A third theory - called the "hit-and-run," according to Yuan - is that Theia just glanced off Earth, and chunks of one planet, or pieces from both, combined to form the moon. But the moon's composition matches Earth's almost exactly, which suggests it contains very little of Theia.</p><p>Yuan's new findings, which will soon be published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, may finally offer proof that Theia was in our solar system billions of years ago.</p>

Earth contains buried chunks of an alien world that are 'millions of times larger than Mount Everest,' research suggests

<ul class="summary-list"><li>"House of Flame and Shadow" by Sarah J. Maas comes out on January 30. </li><li>The "Crescent City" series has a massive cast of characters that can be hard to keep track of.</li></ul><p>The wait is almost over. On January 30, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/sarah-j-maas-confirmed-working-on-next-acotar-book-2023-9">Sarah J. Maas</a> will release "House of Flame and Shadow," the third book in her best-selling <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/sarah-j-maas-crescent-city-acotar-release-details-2023-9">"Crescent City" series</a>.</p><p>The series follows Bryce Quinlan, a half-fae living in Lunathion, also known as Crescent City, on the continent Valbara on the planet Midgard. Fans have been anxiously awaiting the third installment, as the second book in the series, "<a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/sarah-j-maas-books-ranking-most-emotional-2023-10">House of Sky and Breath</a>," ended on a dramatic cliffhanger.</p><p>"Crescent City" has a huge cast of characters, most of which are magical creatures referred to as Vanir. That cast will likely only expand in "House of Flame and Shadow," as the book is set to cross over with Maas' "<a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/sarah-j-maas-books-reading-order-acotar-crescent-city-2023-3">A Court of Thorns and Roses</a>" series, which has four books and a novella packed with characters.</p><p>To help prepare you for the third book, Business Insider created a guide to some of the most important characters in the "Crescent City" universe.</p><p>The rest of this article contains major spoilers for the "Crescent City" and "A Court of Thorns and Roses" series. And if you want a refresher on the "Crescent City" plot so far, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/sarah-j-maas-crescent-city-details-to-remember-2023-12">check it out here.</a></p><h2>Bryce Quinlan is the protagonist of the 'Crescent City' series, but her mate Hunt Athalar and brother Ruhn Danaan are key to the plot too</h2><p>As a half-fae, Bryce has both a human and a fae parent. Her mother is Ember Quinlan, a human, and she considers her stepfather, a human sharpshooter named Randall Silago, her real dad.</p><p>But her birth father is Einar Danaan, known as the Autumn King to the public. Einar is the ruler of the Valbaran fae, and his son, Ruhn Danaan, Crown Prince of the Valbaran fae, is Bryce's half-brother.</p><p>Bryce and Ruhn are heirs to the Starborn fae lineage, giving them power over starlight and the ability to wield the Starsword, an ancient sword forged from an actual star. Bryce has more starlight power than Ruhn, though he is a full-blooded fae. Ruhn also has power from his mother's lineage, allowing him to wield shadows and speak into other people's minds — the latter of which he keeps secret from most people.</p><p>Bryce can blind people with her power and has an eight-pointed star scar on her chest that glows at different times. Bryce's power also allows her to teleport, and she can absorb other Vanir's powers for short bursts of time because she made the Drop through a gate, where Vanir drop their power daily.</p><div type="image" title="The cover of &quot;House of Flame and Shadow&quot; by Sarah J. Maas." height="3077" width="2000" msid="106940495" hostid="261" sizebytes="428096"></div><p>In addition to her Starborn abilities, Bryce became a portal after her friend Danika Fendyr (more on her in a bit) inked Luna's Horn, a magical object that creates portals, onto her back, allowing her to travel between worlds.</p><p>Bryce meets her mate Orion (Hunt) Athalar in "House of Earth and Blood," though they don't recognize themselves as such until "House of Sky and Breath." Hunt is an angel, a species formally referred to as a Malakh on Midgard. Hunt can fly thanks to his wings, and he has power over lightning.</p><p>Hunt was previously a slave owned by the republic as punishment for rebelling against them, but he was freed at the end of "House of Earth and Blood." However, he still works for the 33rd Legion as a member of the triarii, the private protection for the governor of Crescent City, who is always an archangel.</p><p>At the end of "House of Sky and Breath," Ruhn and Hunt help Bryce escape to another world to save their planet from the Asteri, evil creatures who have been leeching power from its citizens for centuries.</p><h2>Bryce's late friend Danika Fendyr and her Pack of Devils move the plot along despite dying in the first book</h2><p>Bryce met her best friend Danika Fendyr at college, and they were attached at the hip until Danika died at the beginning of "House of Earth and Blood." Danika was a powerful wolf shifter, the Alpha of the Pack of Devils, and the heir apparent to the Valbaran wolves. She was also a bloodhound, allowing her to sniff people's bloodlines.</p><p>She worked quietly to undermine the Asteri until her death, tattooing the horn on Bryce's back and partnering with a human named Sofie Renast to uncover how the Asteri came to Midgard.</p><div type="image" title="The cover of &quot;House of Earth and Blood&quot; by Sarah J. Maas." height="3039" width="2000" msid="106940497" hostid="261" sizebytes="302954"></div><p>Before her death, she also secretly mated the angel Baxian Argos, known to most as the Helhound, and left a luxury apartment to Bryce in her will, where she kept clues about her rebellious activities. Baxian tried to help Bryce and Hunt throughout "House of Sky and Breath," and the Asteri took him prisoner alongside Ruhn and Hunt at the end of the book.</p><p>Danika's pack included Connor Holstrom, her Second, who was romantically interested in Bryce. The Archangel Micah murdered Danika, Connor, and the rest of the pack after she stole Luna's Horn. Bryce killed Micah when she discovered who murdered her friends.</p><h2>Bryce and Ruhn's friends back them up throughout the series</h2><p>Ruhn's best friends are Declan Emmet and Tristan Flynn, two fae with whom he went through his Ordeal, a magical challenge fae must overcome. The trio also work for the Auxiliary, Crescent City's law enforcement agency, and live in a house together.</p><p>Declan is skilled at cyber security, often hacking into different networks to help his friends, and Flynn, who has earth magic, will inherit the title of lord when his father dies. Declan and Flynn helped Bryce, Hunt, and Ruhn break into the Asteri's palace remotely in "House of Sky and Breath," though it's unclear if the Asteri knew of their involvement.</p><p>Aside from Danika, Bryce also became good friends with Fury Axtar and Juniper Andromeda in college. Juniper is a faun and professional dancer, while Fury is a Vanir whose species is classified. She works as an assassin for hire. Juniper and Fury also revealed to Bryce they were in a romantic relationship at the end of "House of Earth and Blood."</p><h2>Mer Tharion Ketos and wolf shifter Ithan Holstrom worked with Bryce, Ruhn, and Hunt in 'House of Sky and Breath'</h2><p>Tharion and Ithan were introduced in "House of Earth and Blood," but their plots became more involved in the second book in the "<a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/sarah-j-maas-shut-down-fan-theories-about-crescent-city-2023-9">Crescent City</a>" series. They also both move into Ruhn's house during the second book.</p><p>As a mer, Tharion lived in an underwater city ruled by the River Queen, and he was her Captain of Intelligence at the start of the series. He was also betrothed to her daughter after being intimate with her years ago, though he doesn't want to be with her. Tharion works with Bryce and Hunt to discover the whereabouts of Sofie Renast's brother Emile, though he backs off when he finds out Emile lacks magical powers.</p><p>Tharion also leaves the River Queen's court in "HOSAB," offering himself to the Viper Queen instead so he doesn't have to live underwater. A snake shifter, the Viper Queen rules over the Meat Market in Crescent City, where seedy dealings often go down. Those working for her often become addicted to her venom.</p><p>Ithan is Connor's younger brother, and he had a promising career as a sunball player, though he quit after his brother's death. Sabine Fendyr, Danika's mother, kicks him out of his wolf pack at the beginning of "House of Sky and Breath" for defending Bryce in the press, making him a lone wolf. Danika's father is Mordoc, a cruel dreadwolf who works for the Asteri.</p><p>Ithan also loved Bryce, which he always kept to himself because of Connor and Bryce's connection. In "HOSAB," he goes with Bryce to a mystic, discovering a wolf shifter separated from her family. The Prime of the wolves reveals to him the wolf is likely the lost Fendyr heir who could challenge Sabine for the Prime position when he dies. At the end of the book, Ithan steals the unnamed wolf from the mystic, hoping to protect her from Sabine.</p><h2>The estranged half-sisters the Hind, aka Lidia Cervos, and Hypaxia Enador were major players in 'HOSAB'</h2><div type="image" title="&quot;House of Sky and Breath&quot; by Sarah J. Maas." height="3004" width="2000" msid="106940500" hostid="261" sizebytes="315644"></div><p>Hypaxia Enador became Queen of the Valbaran Witches in "House of Earth and Blood" after her mother died. She is both a witch and a necromancer, allowing her to speak to the dead. She inherited her necromancy gifts from her father.</p><p>When she became queen, the Autumn King arranged a marriage between Ruhn and Hypaxia, hoping to increase the fae's power in Valbara. Ruhn and Hypaxia have friendly interactions in "House of Earth and Blood," but unbeknownst to him, the witch has a secret lover. She is involved with Celestina, the archangel who replaces Micah as Crescent City's governor after his death. Their relationship is a secret to all but Bryce and Hunt, who walk in on them being intimate at a ball.</p><p>Lidia Cervos and Hypaxia share a mother, but Lidia's father's family raised her because she inherited his deer shifter gifts instead of her mother's witch powers. Lidia was recruited by the evil archangel Sandriel (who is killed by Hunt in "House of Earth and Blood") to join her triarii, and she became not only her spymaster but spymaster for the Asteri. She is also the cruel angel Pollux Antonius' lover, seeming to thrive among the evil.</p><p>But unbeknownst to everyone, Lidia is a spy for the rebel group Ophion, going undercover as Agent Daybright with no one knowing she hates the Asteri and Pollux. Ruhn, as Agent Night, connects with Day using his mind-speaking powers while helping Bryce search for Emile, and they fall in love without knowing who the other is.</p><p>Lidia won't tell Ruhn who she is even after discovering his identity, only revealing herself to save him and Bryce when they are captured after breaking into the Asteri's Archives at the end of "House of Sky and Breath."</p><h2>Aidas, a Hel prince, is trying to free Midgard of the Asteri, which includes Rigelus</h2><p>In "Crescent City," Bryce has contact with Aidas, one of the seven princes of Hel. Rather than being a place of punishment for the dead, Hel is another planet in the "Crescent City" universe. It's considered an evil place to the public, particularly because demons can be called to Midgard from it. But Bryce discovered in "HOSAB" that Hel has been trying to help Midgard's citizens fight against the Asteri for thousands of years. The Asteri tried to conquer Hel before coming to Midgard, and the princes killed Sirius, one of the Asteri, while pushing them out.</p><p>Aidas visited Bryce when she was a child in the form of a cat, and he later appeared to her as a handsome blond man when she called on him as an adult. Aidas is invested in Bryce's Starborn power, as he previously fought against the Asteri alongside the last Starborn Queen, Theia.</p><p>Six members of the Asteri still exist on Midgard, and they're led by Rigelus, known as the Bright Hand of the Asteri. The Asteri's power is described as almost god-like in "Crescent City," and unbeknownst to the world, they feed off of the firstlight Vanir release when they make the Drop, where they come into their magical power and become immortal, and the secondlight they release after they die.</p><p>Rigelus intends to use the horn on Bryce's back to get to the planet her breed of fae originated from, as he wants to feed on them again. She escapes him thanks to assistance from Ruhn and Hunt, intending to open a portal to Hel in the hopes she can find Aidas and get his help ridding her planet of the Asteri.</p><h2>The cast of 'A Court of Thorns and Roses' will also be important in 'House of Flame and Shadow'</h2><div type="image" title="A side-by-side of the cover of &quot;A Court of Thorns and Roses&quot; and a headshot of Sarah J. Maas." height="1080" width="1440" msid="106940503" hostid="261" sizebytes="100572"></div><p>To her dismay, Bryce doesn't reach Hel, instead finding herself in a strange, idyllic land. That land is Prythian, where the "A Court of Thorns and Roses" series is set.</p><p>Bryce is only formally introduced to Rhysand in "House of Sky and Breath," though she appears to interact with Feyre Archeron, Nesta Archeron, Amren, Cassian, and Azriel. Feyre and Rhysand are the High Lord and High Lady of the Night Court, and the others serve in their court. Nesta is also one of Feyre's sisters, and she is mated to Cassian.</p><p>All the court members are fae, though Amren used to be another more powerful creature before she sacrificed that part of herself during a war in "A Court of Wings and Ruin."</p><p>Bryce's interactions with the Night Court are brief in "HOSAB," but <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/sarah-j-maas-halloween-costumes-acotar-throne-of-glass-2023-10">Maas</a> revealed several connections between "Crescent City" and the "ACOTAR" universe in the chapter. First, Bryce thinks Rhysand is her brother when she first sees him because he looks nearly identical to Ruhn. In addition, the Starsword lights up when placed next to Azriel's knife, Truth-Teller, indicating it is Truth-Teller's long-lost twin weapon, Gwydion, which is mentioned several times in "ACOTAR." Likewise, Bryce discovers she can communicate with Rhysand and Amren by speaking the ancient language of the fae.</p><p>Maas hasn't revealed what role the cast of "ACOTAR" will play in "House of Flame and Shadow," but she <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/sarah-j-maas-crescent-city-acotar-release-details-2023-9">teased</a> an interaction between Bryce, Nesta, and Azriel in an <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/sarah-j-maas-crescent-city-acotar-release-details-2023-9">excerpt from the book</a> that she shared on <a target="_blank" href="https://www.instagram.com/p/C17hDhju94-/?hl=en">Instagram</a>.</p><p>"Bryce began running again, hurtling through the cave. Back toward Nesta and Azriel. And prayed there was something left for her to save," it read.</p>

A guide to the most important characters in Sarah J. Maas' 'Crescent City' series

<ul class="summary-list"><li><keyword id="6359982" type="LOCATION" weightage="60" keywordseo="earth">Earth</keyword>'s <keyword id="133780" type="PERSON" weightage="60" keywordseo="magnetic-field">magnetic field</keyword>, which protects it from solar radiation, has a <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/earth-magnetic-field-weakening-satellite-problems-2020-5">weak spot</a> that's expanding.</li><li>This weak spot may be caused by pieces of <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/pieces-planet-theia-buried-in-earth-mantle-2021-4">an ancient planet that hit Earth and sank into the mantle</a>.</li><li>The growing <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/why-earths-magnetic-north-is-moving-2019-4">"dent" in the magnetic field</a> can cause <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/weak-spot-magnetic-field-growing-could-harm-satellites-2020-8">malfunctions in satellites</a> and spacecraft.</li></ul><p>Earth's suit of geomagnetic armor has a chink, and it's growing.</p><p>A <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/earth-magnetic-field-weakening-satellite-problems-2020-5">weak spot</a> in our planet's magnetic field, located above the southern Atlantic Ocean, has been increasing in size over the last two centuries, and it's starting to split in two.</p><p>For those of us on the ground, this isn't cause for concern: The protective field continues to shield the planet from deadly solar radiation. But the South Atlantic Anomaly, as it's appropriately named, does affect satellites and other spacecraft that pass through an area between South America and southern Africa. That's because higher quantities of charged solar particles seep through the field there, which can cause malfunctions in computers and circuitry.</p><p>The source of this growing "dent," as <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-researchers-track-slowly-splitting-dent-in-earth-s-magnetic-field">NASA calls it</a>, is a bit of a mystery. But scientists expect it to keep expanding.</p><p>"This thing is set to increase in size in the future," Julien Aubert, a geomagnetism expert from the Paris Institute of Earth Physics, told Insider.</p><p>Aubert thinks that the dent may have a connection to two gigantic blobs of dense rock buried 1,800 miles inside the Earth. Because of their makeup, the blobs disturb the liquid metal in the outer core that generates the magnetic field.</p><p>Both blobs are "millions of times larger than Mount Everest in terms of volume," <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/pieces-planet-theia-buried-in-earth-mantle-2021-4">according to Qian Yuan</a>, a researcher studying geodynamics at Arizona State University.</p><p><a href="https://www.hou.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2021/pdf/1980.pdf">Yuan's team</a> thinks the blobs are otherworldly in origin: After an ancient, Mars-sized planet careened into Earth, it might have left these pieces behind.</p><h2>Chunks of a 4.5 billion-old-year planet inside Earth</h2><p>Nearly 2,000 miles below Earth's surface, swirling <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/02/magnetic-north-update-navigation-maps/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">iron in the planet's outer core</a> generates a magnetic field that stretches all the way from there to the <keyword id="41531" type="COMPANY" weightage="60" keywordseo="space">space</keyword> surrounding our planet. </p><p>That swirl is generated, in part, by a process in which hotter, lighter material from the core rises into the semi-solid mantle above. There, it swaps places with cooler, denser mantle material, which sinks into the core below. This is known as convection. </p><p>The problem is that something at the boundary between the core and mantle underneath southern Africa is wreaking havoc on that convection, thereby weakening the strength of the magnetic field above it.</p><p>It's plausible, Aubert said, that one of the blobs Yuan's team is investigating is to blame.</p><div type="image" title="theia" height="2400" width="3000" msid="82072553" hostid="261"></div><p>Yuan's research posits that the blobs are remnants of an ancient planet called Theia, which struck Earth in its infancy 4.5 billion years ago. The collision helped create the moon.</p><p>Following that crash, the thinking goes, two parts of Theia may have sunk and gotten preserved in the deepest part of Earth's mantle.</p><p>The animation below, based on a <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LLSVP.gif">2016 analysis</a>, shows the location of these planetary fragments. </p><a title="Sanne.cottaar, CC BY-SA 4.0 &lt;https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commonsommons" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:LLSVP.gif"><div type="image" title="LLSVP" height="450" width="512" msid="82072557" hostid="261"></div></a><p>Yuan said these blobs - their technical name is large low-shear-velocity provinces - are between 1.5 and 3.5% denser than the rest of Earth's mantle, and also hotter.</p><p>So when these chunks get involved in convection, they could screw with the regular flow. That, in turn, may lead the iron in the core under southern Africa to swirl in the opposite direction from iron in other parts of the core.</p><p>The orientation of Earth's magnetic field depends on the direction the iron inside is moving. To have a strong magnetic field, the entire thing has to be oriented the same way. So any areas that deviate from the usual pattern weaken the field's overall integrity. </p><div type="image" title="magnetic field" height="320" width="1038" msid="82072559" hostid="261"></div><p>Still, it's possible these low-shear-velocity provinces aren't to blame for the field's weak spot at all.</p><p>"Why doesn't the same weakness occur in the magnetic field above the Pacific, where the other province is?" Christopher Finlay, a geophysicist at the Technical University of Denmark, told Insider. </p><h2>A 'hostile region'</h2><p>A weaker field enables more charged particles from solar wind to reach satellites and other spacecraft in low-Earth orbit. That can cause problems with electronic systems, interrupt data collection, and lead expensive computer components to age prematurely.</p><p>In the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, satellite failures were frequent in the South Atlantic Anomaly, Aubert said.</p><p>Even today, the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Swarm/Swarm_probes_weakening_of_Earth_s_magnetic_field">European Space Agency has found</a> that satellites flying through the region are "more likely to experience technical malfunctions," like brief glitches that can disrupt communications. That's why it's common for satellite operators to <a href="https://phys.org/news/2020-08-nasa-track-slowly-dent-earth.html">shut down non-essential components</a> as the objects pass through the area.</p><p>The Hubble Space Telescope, too, passes through the anomaly in 10 of its 15 orbits around Earth each day, spending nearly 15% of its time in this "hostile region," <a href="https://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/ask/q525.html">according to NASA</a>.</p><div type="image" title="hubble telescope" height="680" width="1024" msid="82072561" hostid="261"></div><h2>The weak spot is getting weaker</h2><p>Researchers use a set of three satellites, collectively nicknamed Swarm, to keep tabs on the South Atlantic Anomaly.</p><p>Some studies suggest the region's total area has <a href="https://www.earth-prints.org/bitstream/2122/9857/1/ADS_Toward_a%20geomagnetic%20transition_nhess_2013.pdf">quadrupled</a> in the last 200 years, and that it <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2016.00040/full#B7">continues to expand</a> year over year. The anomaly has also weakened by 8% since 1970.</p><p>In the last decade, Swarm also observed that the anomaly has split in half<a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Swarm/Swarm_probes_weakening_of_Earth_s_magnetic_field"></a>: One area of magnetic weakness has developed over the ocean southwest of Africa, while another sits east of South America. </p><div type="image" title="SAA_2020" height="430" width="700" msid="82072562" hostid="261"></div><p>This is bad <keyword id="6355005" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="60" keywordseo="news">news</keyword>, according to Finlay, because it means the hostile region for spacecraft is going to get bigger.</p><p>"Satellites will have problems not only over South America but be impacted when they're coming over southern Africa as well," he said.</p>

Remnants of an ancient planet buried inside the Earth may be the cause of a weak spot in the magnetic field

<div><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div></div><p>The International Space Station took 15 nations about $100 billion and nearly two decades to build. Basically, it's humanity's most expensive object.</p><p>It's also now host to Iris, an ultra-high-definition video camera.</p><p>A company called UrtheCast sent up the 4K camera in 2013, and it will sell data-rich videos to governments and businesses starting late July for about $20,000-$30,000 each.</p><p>However, the rest of us will soon be able to take the ultimate selfie - from space - for free.</p><p>No, you won't see your beautiful face from 250 miles up. Each pixel in UrtheCast's highest-res imagery from <a href="https://www.urthecast.com/enterprise/cameras#iris" target="_blank">Iris</a> can resolve about 1 meter (a little more than three feet). So scribbling your marriage proposal on a lawn or a public park will require some pretty big letters.</p><p>"You'll never see the guy in the backyard mowing the lawn, but you can see a golf cart," Scott Larson, CEO of UrtheCast, told about a dozen reporters in Manhattan on Tuesday.</p><p>Larson told Business Insider that UrtheCast plans to post a streaming 1080p video feed sometime in late July.</p><p><strong>"[Astronauts] all say going to space changes them," Larson says, describing what some call the <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/urthecast-stream-hd-video-from-international-space-station-iss-2013-1">overview effect</a>. "We want to take the astronauts' view and stream it for the rest of us."</strong></p><p><span style="line-height: 1.5em;">We've had great <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/chris-hadfields-best-images-of-earth-book-2015-1">views of Earth from space</a> for awhile, primarily via NASA satellites, but Iris's public, persistent, ultra-high-resolution video is a first.</span></p><h2>Video from space</h2><p>On June 17, UrtheCast released its "first light" Iris clips of Earth - a glimpse at what this powerful camera is capable of.</p><p>Judging by the clips, the live web feed should be incredibly cool and potentially addictive after it goes live. (The <a href="https://www.urthecast.com/live" target="_blank">current live feed</a> on the site is not Iris's view.)</p><p>Here's downtown Boston. You can see cars driving down highways and side streets:</p><p></p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div><p>Below is the River Thames in London. <span style="line-height: 1.5em;">The London Eye is at the top left. </span></p><p><span style="line-height: 1.5em;">Iris can see boats zoom over the water, and UrtheCast's software can calculate their speed in real-time:</span></p><p><span style="line-height: 1.5em;"><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div><br /></span></p><p>While the resolution is incredible, the camera does distort tall objects. They seem to move or morph over time because the space station is flying overhead at 17,500 mph.</p><p>The videos look amazingly stable, though. UrtheCast says gyroscopes on the camera help keep the image steady, as it points at and tracks a scene. The gyros also dampen vibration from any astronauts banging on the space station's hull while exercising, for example.</p><p>But the killer feature of the Iris camera is the software, says George Tyc, co-founder and CTO of <a href="https://www.urthecast.com/company/leadership" target="_blank">UrtheCast</a>.</p><p>As Iris records video, software in space and on the ground matches what the camera sees to older satellite images in real-time. "You end up with something that looks completely stable," Tyc says.</p><p><strong style="line-height: 1.5em;">Additional to that, Tyc says the video software can "track every single thing that moves."</strong></p><p>"Cars are moving, things are happening, tall buildings are swaying. … You see dynamics, you see this additional information" you couldn't have without video, he says.</p><p>Take a look at Barcelona, for example.</p><p>Want to know how full those oil tanks are, or how much activity there is in the port? Iris and its algorithms can help:</p><p></p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div><p>Each tracked "scene," like the ones shown above, can last up to 75, possibly 90 seconds - which is the product governments and businesses can order from UrtheCast. The more recent the scene, the more valuable it is, and the more UrtheCast can charge for the data.</p><p>The free web stream won't track scenes nor have ultra HD resolution. It will also lack special data layers, object tracking, and other valuable services. But it should still look amazing.</p><p>The company also has a medium-resolution camera, called <a href="https://www.urthecast.com/enterprise/cameras#theia" target="_blank">Theia</a>, which Russian cosmonauts installed along with Iris in late 2013 and early 2014. Unlike Iris, Theia takes lower resolution (5-meter pixel) images over much wider swaths of the Earth's surface (about 31 miles wide vs. Iris's 3.4-mile-wide view).</p><p>Low-res isn't necessarily a bad thing, though; Theia can monitor forests, farmland, bodies of water, and other large-scale stuff. UrtheCast's competitors offer similar imagery, but the company hopes to undercut on price (because it's basically able to use the space station for free).</p><h2>Yes, it's kind of creepy</h2><p>At least one reporter during UrtheCast's "first light" event in New York City found the concept of a persistent, high-definition camera constantly watching our driveways, cars, boats, and so on from space a little creepy.</p><p>But Larson says there are at least 50 cameras on satellites taking photos at much, much higher resolutions - spy satellites "we've never heard of," according to Larson. Some of these can probably resolve a license plate number, but none of them are open to the public.</p><p>"We can't see faces … or suntanning on a beach" with Iris, Larson says.</p><p>When UrtheCast launches its live web video feed in late July, Larson told Business Insider, it hopes to release a suite of apps for phones, tablets, and other mobile devices. Larson said about 300 developers are currently working to make cool apps.</p><p>"You could find out when the space station is going to be above you, for example, and have it text you the image when it happens," Larson says.</p><p>So if you're thinking about proposing to the love of your life - and your ambition is so high it soars into space - late July might be a good time to target.</p><p>Watch the full Iris videos released by UrtheCast below.</p><div id="ooyalaplayer" style="width: 800px; height: 450px;"></div>    <div class="margin-top">        <h3>NOW WATCH: <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/jerusalem-israel-police-surveillance-balloons-2014-11">These Surveillance Balloons Are The Hot New Way To Spy On People</a></h3>        <div>            <div>        <div class="ooyala-video-player" data-video-autoplay="false" data-video-id="pycTl4cTp5qwJ58ZCPdAB893z0V9eyP6" data-player-variable="ooyalapopvideo" id="ooyalaplayer_popvideo" style="width:1280px;height:720px"></div>        </div>        </div>            </div>

Soon you can take selfies from the world's most expensive satellite - for free

<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"><p class="source"><span>Alexi Lubomirski/Getty Images</span></p><p class="caption">Meghan Markle could be tapping the designer behind her engagement gown to make her wedding dress.</p></div><p></p></div></div></p><ul><li><strong>Meghan Markle's wedding dress is expected to cost roughly $135,584 (£100,000), according to sources who spoke to the Daily Mail.</strong></li><li><strong>The same sources have said that Markle's wedding dress designer is Ralph &amp; Russo, the same designer she wore for her <a href="https://www.harpersbazaar.com/celebrity/latest/a20194365/meghan-markle-wedding-dress-designer-ralph-and-russo-brand/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">engagement gown</a>.</strong></li><li><strong><a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/an-inside-look-at-the-life-and-career-of-princess-diana-2017-8" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Princess Diana</a>'s wedding dress was estimated to cost $115,000, and <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/kate-middleton-best-style-moments-reveal-meghan-markle-fashion-future-2018-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kate Middleton</a>'s wedding dress reportedly cost $434,000.</strong></li></ul><p> </p><p>The world is waiting with bated breath to see which designer <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/category/meghan-markle" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Meghan Markle</a> will wear when she marries <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/prince-harry-net-worth-2018-4" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Prince Harry</a> on May 19 - and how much the The Dress will cost.</p><p>Rumors have been flying that designers Roland Mouret, Inbal Dror, and Burberry's Christopher Bailey are in the running to dress the future royal for her big day.</p><p>Dan O'Neill, creative director of bridal, bridesmaids, and evening wear brand <a href="https://bridal.theiacouture.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">THEIA</a>, told Business Insider last week he predicted Canadian designer Erdem Moralıoğlu, whose ERDEM brand has a "modern Victorian with a quirky edge" aesthetic, to design the royal wedding dress since Markle has been wearing clothes by Canadian designers or brands as of late.</p><p>But this weekend, the Daily Mail shut all that down by reporting that <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-5692879/Meghans-100-000-wedding-dress-revealed.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Markle will wear a creation by Ralph &amp; Russo</a> - the designer behind the black masterpiece of a gown she wore during her <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/prince-harry-meghan-markle-engagement-photos-take-a-look-2017-12" target="_blank" rel="noopener">engagement photos</a> with Prince Harry.</p><p>And while the wedding dress has been rumored to come with a six-figure price tag, specifically $550,000, it may not be as high as we've been led to believe. According to the Daily Mail, the dress is only $135,584 (£100,000). Markle will probably pay for the dress herself, while the <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/royal-wedding-cost-meghan-markle-prince-harry-2018-4">other wedding costs</a> will be covered by the royal family, keeping in tradition with Kate Middleton's 2011 wedding.</p><p>Either way, it's cry from the wedding dress <a href="https://www.elle.com/culture/celebrities/a15074135/meghan-markles-first-wedding-dress-trevor-engelson-wedding-photo/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Markle wore during her first wedding to Trevor Engelson</a> in Jamaica, a white strapless column gown with an embellished belt.</p><p>But that's not the only time we've seen her in a wedding dress pre-royal wedding.</p><p>In the season seven finale of Suits, her character, Rachel Zane, wore an Anne Barge V-neck wedding gown with beading and delicate embroidery that <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/meghan-markle-suits-wedding-dress_us_5ad8f066e4b029ebe0224ae3" target="_blank" rel="noopener">retails for $6,800</a>.</p><p>But neither of those gowns will hold a candle to the dress she wears on May 19 - and she certainly has big shoes to fill when it comes to royal wedding gowns.</p><p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"><p class="source"><span>AP Photos</span></p><p class="caption">Princess Diana's wedding dress cost an estimated $115,000.</p></div><p></p></div></div></p><p><a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/meghan-markle-wedding-dress-princess-diana-2018-4#princess-dianas-wedding-dress-was-designed-by-husband-and-wife-team-david-and-elizabeth-emanuel-the-gown-had-sequins-lace-and-10000-pearls-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Princess Diana's wedding dress</a>, designed by husband-and-wife team David and Elizabeth Emanuel, featured sequins, lace, 10,000 pearls, and a 25-foot train. It was estimated to cost $115,000. Years later, Kate Middleton donned a queenly and iconic Victorian inspired long-sleeved lace <a href="https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/beauty/fashion/g4690/kate-middleton-wedding-dress/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Alexander McQueen wedding dress</a>, which reportedly cost $434,000, during her wedding to Prince William.</p><p>While the Daily Mail describes Markle's gown as a "hand-stitched, heavily beaded design," there's no official word yet on what her wedding dress will look like - but that hasn't prevented the world from speculating.</p><p>"Meghan is sleek and modern, and her sartorial choices of late have been guided by her best friend, Canadian stylist Jessica Mulroney," O'Neill said.</p><p>"My bet would be that Meghan will go modern and sleek, the silhouette will be form fitting and veer away from the traditional ball gowns that have swept into cathedrals and royal chapels. The gown will be sleeved as protocol dictates, which is perfect timing as bridal fashion is enjoying a sleeve moment. There will be a dramatic train flaring out from behind the knee."</p><p>However, he doesn't think the gown will be as expensive as the rumors claim it to be, saying it definitely won't be a six-figure gown, maybe even less than five figures.</p><p style="font-weight: 400;">"Meghan is very much an everyday girl and believes in wearing affordably priced clothes," O'Neill said. "Her wedding gown will be priced in the realm of accessible gowns. This beautiful, young, dynamic woman may surprise us all as she is making up her own rules in her new world every day."</p>    <div class="margin-top">        <h3>NOW WATCH: <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/why-never-release-pet-goldfish-into-wild-2018-4">Why you should never release your pet goldfish into the wild</a></h3>        <div>                    </div>    </div>

Meghan Markle's wedding dress could cost more than $135,000 - and she'll probably be the one paying for it

<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"><p class="source"><span>istock</span></p></div><p></p></div></div></p><ul><li><strong>A new study challenges the traditional idea that the moon was formed after a rogue planetary body slammed into the Earth, knocking off a disc that would become the moon.</strong></li><li><strong>Instead, the study authors think the moon may have emerged from an even more violent collision that would have created a rapidly spinning donut of molten, vaporized rock and liquid called a synestia.</strong></li><li><strong>As the synestia cooled, the moon might have emerged from its outer regions before the inner part cooled and became Earth.</strong></li><li><strong>This helps answer some lingering questions about how the moon formed.</strong></li></ul><p><br />Our traditional understanding of the moon's formation is violent enough. But the true story of how Earth acquired its satellite may be a tale of even greater destruction.</p><p>That's according to a study newly published in the Journal of Geophysical Research - Planets.</p><p>In the traditional moon-formation story, a Mars-sized object called Theia came hurtling through space and glanced off our planet. The molten rock and material thrown off in the collision became our moon. That line of thought is known as the Giant Impact Model.</p><p>But there are problems with this explanation. The moon's chemical and isotopic composition is very close to that of Earth, a fact that doesn't fit with the idea that the moon is a disc partially or largely from a rogue planet. Instead, the moon seems more like Earth, though it lacks certain volatile elements found here. Plus, getting the right-sized disc into the exact orbit of the moon would have required a precise and unlikely collision.</p><p>So the team of researchers behind the study - from the University of California, Davis and Harvard - have a different explanation.</p><p>It relies on a new type of planetary object, called a synestia, which two of the authors of the study proposed last year.</p><p>The idea behind a synestia is that if planet-sized objects were to collide at high enough speeds, there could be enough energy to vaporize the structures. It'd be too hot for them to exist as traditional planetary bodies -they'd become rapidly spinning donuts of molten, vaporized rock and liquid. The terms mantle, atmosphere, and disk would no longer apply.</p><p>The researchers behind the new study argue that a synestia-creating impact is responsible for our moon. It's similar to the Giant Impact Model, but cranked up to 11 in intensity.</p><p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"><p class="source"><span>NASA image adapted by Lock et al</span></p><p class="caption">As the synestia cooled, the newly formed moon would have emerged from the donut-shaped cloud.</p></div><p></p></div></div></p><h2>Planetary vaporization</h2><p>Scientists estimate that Earth took its terrestrial form around when our solar system settled into its current layout 4.5 billion years ago.</p><p>According to these new calculations, the pre-Earth form of the planet could have been slammed by another planetary object. Everything would have vaporized, creating a synestia. Spinning in the vastness of space, this structure couldn't last in this superheated state for long, likely only for hundreds of years, according to the study.</p><p>But in that cooling and condensing process, it's likely that some molten rock in an outer layer could have condensed into a seed for a proto-moon. Superheated and pressurized rock would have rained down on this moon seed, and it could have collected vaporized rock, according to the study. </p><p>According to this new theory, the moon would have formed inside the synestia at high pressures and a temperature between 5,000 and 7,000 degrees Fahrenheit before it cooled and condensed.</p><p>"The rate of rain fall is about ten times that of a hurricane on Earth," Simon Lock, a graduate student in Harvard's Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences and lead author of the new study, said in <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/emb_releases/2018-02/hu-mtm022718.php">a news release</a>. "Over time, the whole [synestia] structure shrinks, and the Moon emerges from the vapor."</p><p>This helps explain the similarities and differences between the moon and Earth. The moon itself is chemically similar to Earth minus certain elements. If it was part of a synestia, it could have collected the less easily vaporized and less volatile elements that also make up Earth, but fewer elements that would have been easily vaporized.</p><p>"This is the first model that can match the pattern of the moon's composition," Sarah Stewart, a professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences at UC Davis and an author of the study, said in a statement to Business Insider.</p><p>Such giant impacts that created moons in a synestia could once have been common in the universe, the authors wrote.</p><p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"><p class="source"><span><a href="http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1249.html">NASA</a></span></p><p class="caption">A view of Earth from the moon captured by an Apollo 8 astronaut in 1968. NASA calls the famous image "Earthrise."</p></div><p></p></div></div></p><h2>Earth's emergence</h2><p>As the synestia continued to cool and condense, it would have shrunk, with the moon emerging from the cloud of vapor, orbiting what would become the Earth.</p><p>It might have only taken a few decades for the moon to emerge from the cooling cloud, which could have condensed within another 1,000 years or so.</p><p>In addition to helping explain the chemical composition of Earth and the moon, the authors say this theory is plausible because a number of types of impacts could have created the synestia. That makes it more likely than the model that depends on a specific glancing blow to knock a moon-disc off a rogue planet.</p><p>"Basically, this is the first model that that has been able to explain the complications, and that has been able to do it quantitatively," Lock said. "This is a dramatically different way of forming the Moon. You just don't think of a satellite forming inside another body, but this is what appears to happen."</p><p>It's hard to be certain of exactly what happened before the Earth as we know it existed, but this model presents a new plausible explanation and answers lingering questions.</p><p>"We've done calculations of each of the processes that go into forming the Moon and shown that the model could work," Lock said, "but there are various aspects of our theory that will need more interrogation."</p>    <div class="margin-top">        <h3>NOW WATCH: <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/why-are-human-breasts-big-2018-2">The science of why human breasts are so big</a></h3>        <div>                    </div>    </div>

You Searched For "theia" and got 11 results

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