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Mathematical motifs feature in many of <keyword id="6359288" type="General" weightage="100" keywordseo="shakespeare" source="Orion">Shakespeare</keyword>'s most memorable scenes. He lived and wrote in the late 16th century, when new mathematical concepts were transforming perceptions of the world. Part of the role of the theatre was to process the cultural implications of all these changes. People in Shakespeare's time were used to the idea of the infinite: the planets, the heavens, the weather. But they were much less used to the inverse idea that the very small (and even nothingness) could be expressed by mathematical axioms. In fact, the first recorded English use of the word "zero" wasn't until 1598. Thinkers like Italian mathematician Fibonacci, who lived in the 13th century, helped to introduce the concept of zero - known then as a "cipher" - into the mainstream. But it wasn't until philosopher <keyword id="660497" type="General" weightage="50" keywordseo="rene-descartes" source="Orion">Rene Descartes</keyword> and mathematicians Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz developed calculus in the late 16th and early 17th centuries that "zero" started to figure prominently in society. Moreover, scientist <keyword id="390228" type="General" weightage="50" keywordseo="robert-hooke" source="Orion">Robert Hooke</keyword> didn't discover microorganisms until 1665, meaning the idea that life could exist on a micro level remained something of fantasy. With the growing influence of neoclassical ideas in England, small, insignificant figures had begun to be used to represent very large concepts. This was happening both in modes of calculation (which used proportion) and in the practice of writing mathematical symbols. For example, during the 16th and early 17th centuries, the equals, multiplication, division, root, decimal, and inequality symbols were gradually introduced and standardised. Alongside this came the work of Christopher Clavius - a German Jesuit astronomer who helped Pope Gregory XIII to introduce the Gregorian calendar - and other mathematicians on fractions. Then referred to as "broken numbers", they stirred up great angst among those who clung to classical models of number theory. The struggle to come to terms with the entanglement of the very large and the very small is splendidly displayed in many of Shakespeare's works. This includes his history play Henry V and tragedy Troilus and Cressida. The opening chorus of Henry V displays Shakespeare's interest in proportion and the concept of zero through its repeated "O" and references to contemporary mathematical thought: O for a muse of fire, that would ascend / The brightest heaven of invention: / A kingdom for a stage, princes to act, / And monarchs to behold the swelling scene [...] / may we cram / Within this wooden O the very casques / That did affright the air at Agincourt? / O pardon: since a crooked figure may / Attest in little place a million, / And let us, ciphers to this great account, / On your imaginary forces work. <keyword id="54033" type="General" weightage="50" keywordseo="scholars" source="Orion">Scholars</keyword> largely agree that Shakespeare's "crooked figure" is actually zero. This is despite, of course, the rather obvious objection that zero is the least crooked of all numbers. In the line "a crooked figure may / Attest in little place a million", Shakespeare references 16th century mathematical debates surrounding the idea that the very small is capable of both representing and influencing the very big. In this case, the zero is capable of transforming 100,000 into 1,000,000. In this mathematical analogy, "crooked figure[s]" can "attest" much greater things. The chorus suggests that by using one's "imaginary forces", much greater things may come from the forthcoming stage performances. This extended metaphor reappears in Shakespeare's tragicomedy, The Winter's Tale when the "cipher" (numbers) transform into many thousands of thank yous: Like a cipher, / Yet standing in rich place, I multiply / With one "We thank you" many thousands more / That go before it. There is a further, visual metaphor in Henry V's opening prologue where the chorus asks pardon of an "O" to help them represent many things in the "wooden O" - the Globe Theatre. This is perhaps evidence of Shakespeare's ongoing interest in insignificant figures "attest[ing]" much greater things. Elsewhere in his work, mathematical metaphors encircle themselves in moments of crisis. In Troilus and Cressida, Shakespeare uses mathematical language to chart the slow motion collapse of Troilus's mental stability after witnessing his lover Cressida's flirtation with another man. For Troilus, Cressida disintegrates into "fractions", "fragments" and "bits and greasy relics". To mirror this, Shakespeare's verse descends into jagged pieces, like the early modern name for fractions: "broken numbers". With 2023 marking 400 years since the publication of Shakespeare's First Folio, it is exciting to see how the Bard's plays spoke to significant developments in the 16th-century mathematical world. Shakespeare's plays registered the 16th-century crisis of classical mathematics in the face of newer ideas. But they also offered space for audiences to come to terms with these new ideas and think differently about the world through the lens of mathematics. SEE ALSO: <a target="_blank" class="c-link c-message_attachment__title_link" href="https://www.businessinsider.in/entertainment/news/shah-rukh-khan-turns-chef-tosses-up-pizzas-at-his-home-mannat/articleshow/99721894.cms">Shah Rukh Khan turns chef, tosses up pizzas at his home Mannat</a> <a target="_blank" class="c-link c-message_attachment__title_link" href="https://www.businessinsider.in/sports/news/sachine-tendulkar-most-runs-in-a-year-to-longest-odi-career-here-are-the-top-records/slidelist/99722727.cms">Most runs in a year to longest ODI career, here are the top records of Sachin Tendulkar</a>

Math of the Bard: Shakespeare used a 'crooked figure' for a zero in times when it wasn't widely used

<div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image">VFS Digital Design/FlickrDon't use sophisticated language just for the sake of sounding smart.</div></div></div>In a <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/semantics/ConsequencesErudite.pdf">poll</a> of 110 Stanford undergrads, most admitted they'd changed the words in an academic essay to sound more intelligent by using complicated language.Chances are good they ended up making themselves look foolish instead.Research suggests that using big words when they're not really necessary is a recipe for disaster, since people generally perceive authors who use simpler language as smarter.The <a href="http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/semantics/ConsequencesErudite.pdf">study</a>, led by Daniel M. Oppenheimer, Ph.D., included a series of experiments designed to test this counterintuitive phenomenon.In one experiment, researchers selected a sociology dissertation abstract with lots of long words and created a "simplified" version by replacing every word of nine or more letters with its second shortest entry in the Microsoft Word 2000 thesaurus. Then they asked 35 Stanford undergrads to read the dissertation and rate both the author's intelligence and how difficult the writing was to understand.Results showed that the simplified version was perceived as less complex - and its author was judged as more intelligent.Interestingly, another experiment found that even famous thinkers are perceived as more intelligent when their writing is simpler. Students read a passage from Rene Descartes' "Meditation IV," but only some were told Descartes was the author. (They all knew that Descartes was a 17th century French philosopher, but they may not have read this specific work.)Half the students read a simpler English translation and half the students read a more complex one. Sure enough, participants rated the author as more intelligent when the writing was easier to understand - even when that author was obviously Descartes.To be sure, <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1412107">science</a> suggests that a more robust vocabulary is linked to higher intelligence. But the takeaway here seems to be that trying to sound erudite generally backfires.If the only word that fully captures the thoughts and feelings you want to communicate happens to be an SAT word, go ahead and use it. On the other hand, if you can articulate your thoughts more simply, there's no need to go thumbing through the thesaurus. You'll seem more impressive if you don't. <div class="margin-top"> <h3>NOW WATCH: <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/l-t-i-y-letters-handwriting-analysis-personality-2015-7">The way you write l, t, i, and y reveals a lot about your personality</a></h3> <div> <div> <div class="ooyala-video-player" data-video-autoplay="false" data-video-id="ZndGpjdjrGWWOWyI3u9Zn1wyo3kyNFHl" data-player-variable="ooyalapopvideo" id="ooyalaplayer_popvideo" style="width:1280px;height:720px"></div> </div> </div> </div>

Science says using big words to sound sophisticated makes you seem less intelligent

<div class="KonaFilter image-container float_right"><div class="image on-image"><a href="http://www.amazon.com/Whos-Bigger-Historical-Figures-Really/dp/1107041376/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&amp;qid=1387297630&amp;sr=8-1&amp;keywords=who%27s+bigger+where+historical+figures+really+rank"></a><a href="http://www.harrisinteractive.com/NewsRoom/HarrisPolls/tabid/447/ctl/ReadCustom%20Default/mid/1508/ArticleId/1353/Default.aspx">Wikimedia Commons</a>Jesus, the most important person in history, according to the book.</div></div>It was only a matter of time before the tech world tried to rewrite history.
Stony Brook University computer science professor <a href="http://www.cs.sunysb.edu/~skiena/">Steven Skiena</a> and Google software engineer <a href="https://sites.google.com/site/charlesbward/">Charles B. Ward</a> take on this ambitious task in a book published this fall: <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Whos-Bigger-Historical-Figures-Really/dp/1107041376/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&amp;qid=1387297630&amp;sr=8-1&amp;keywords=who%27s+bigger+where+historical+figures+really+rank">"Who's Bigger: Where Historical Figures Really Rank</a>."
Just as Google ranks web pages, the researchers created an algorithm that ranks historical figures by Wikipedia PageRank, article length, and readership, as well as achievement and celebrity.
Their conclusions have not come without controversy. The top 100 significant figures are overwhelming white and male. For example, Nelson Mandela, who helped end Apartheid in South Africa, ranked only 356. And just three women broke the top 100. 
Cass Sunstein of "The New Republic" <a href="http://www.newrepublic.com/article/115669/ranking-historical-figures-skiena-and-wards-whos-bigger-reviewed">wrote a sprawling analysis of their findings</a>. She questions not only if we can measure historical significance, but whether we should and certainly why the authors relied solely on the English-language version of Wikipedia. On that note, perhaps we could call these the most important figures in Western history.
Here's the top 100:
1. Jesus: central figure of Christianity (7 B.C. - A.D. 30) 
2. Napoleon: Emperor of France, involved in the Battle of Waterloo (1769 - 1821)
3. Muhammad: prophet and founder of Islam (570 - 632)
4. William Shakespeare: English playwright, wrote "Hamlet" (1564 - 1616)
5. Abraham Lincoln: 16th U.S. president, involved in the Civil War (1809 - 1865)
6. George Washington: 1st U.S. president, involved in the American Revolution (1732 - 1799)
7. Adolf Hitler: Fuehrer of Nazi Germany, involved in World War II (1889 - 1945)
8. Aristotle: Greek philosopher and polymath (384 - 322 B.C.)
9. Alexander the Great: Greek king and conqueror of the known world (356 - 323 B.C.)
10. Thomas Jefferson: 3rd U.S. president, co-wrote the Declaration of Independence (1743 - 1826)
11. Henry VII: King of England, had six wives (1491 - 1547)
12. Charles Darwin: scientist, created the Theory of Evolution (1809 - 1882)
13. Elizabeth I: Queen of England, known as "The Virgin Queen" (1533 - 1603)
14. Karl Marx: philosopher, wrote the "Communist Manifesto" (1818 - 1883)
15. Julius Caesar: Roman general and statesmen, said "Et tu, Brute?" (100 - 44 B.C.)
16. Queen Victoria: Queen of Britain, Victorian Era (1819 - 1901)
17. Martin Luther: Protestant Reformation, wrote the "95 Theses" (1483 - 1546)
18. Joseph Stalin: Premier of USSR, involved in World War II (1878 - 1953)
19. Albert Einstein: theoretical physicist, created the Theory of Relativity (1879 - 1955)
20. Christopher Columbus: explorer, discoverer of the New World (1451 - 1506)
21. Isaac Newton: scientist, created the Theory of Gravity (1643 - 1727)
22. Charlemagne: first Holy Roman Emporer, considered the "Father of Europe" (742 - 814)
23. Theodore Roosevelt: 26th U.S. president, Progressive Movement (1858 - 1919)
24. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Austrian composer, wrote "Don Giovanni" (1756 - 1791)
25. Plato: Greek philosopher, wrote "The Republic" (427 - 347 B.C.)
26. Louis XIV: King of France, known as The Sun King (1638 - 1715)
27. Ludwig Von Beethoven: German composer, wrote "Ode to Joy" (1770 - 1827)
28. Ulysses S. Grant: 18th U.S. president and Civil War general (1822 - 1885)
29. Leonardo da Vinci: Italian artist and polymath, painted the "Mona Lisa" (1452 - 1519)
30. Augustus: First Emporer of Rome, Pax Romana (63 B.C. - A.D. 14)
31. Carl Linnaeus: Swedish biologist, father of Taxonomy (1707 - 1778)
32. Ronald Reagan: 40th U.S. president, Conservative Revolution (1911 - 2004)
33. Charles Dickens: English novelist, wrote "David Copperfield" (1812 - 1870
34. Paul the Apostle: Christian apostle and missionary (A.D. 5 - A.D. 67)
35. Benjamin Franklin: Founding father, scientist, captured lightning (1706 - 1790)
36. George W. Bush: 43rd U.S. president during the Iraq War (1946 - )
37. Winston Churchill: Prime Minister of Britain, involved in World War II (1874 - 1965)
38. Genghis Khan: Founder of the Mongol Empire (1162 - 1227)
39. Charles I: King of England, involved in the English Civil War (1600 - 1649)
40. Thomas Edison: Inventor of the light bulb and phonograph (1847 - 1931)
41. James I: King of England, responsible for the King James Bible (1566 - 1625)
42. Friedrich Nietzsche: German philosopher, "God is dead" (1844 - 1900)
43. Franklin D. Roosevelt: 32nd U.S. President, responsible for the New Deal (1882 - 1945)
44. Sigmund Freud: neurologist and creator of psychoanalysis (1856 - 1939)
45. Alexander Hamilton: U.S. Founding Father, National Bank (1755 - 1804)
46. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi: Indian nationalist leader, instrumental in non-violence (1869 - 1948)
47. Woodrow Wilson: 28th U.S. president, involved in World War I (1856 - 1924)
48. Johann Sebastian Bach: Classical composer, wrote the "Well Tempered Clavier" (1685 - 1750)
49. Galileo Galilei: Italian physicist and astronomer (1564 - 1642)
50. Oliver Cromwell: Lord Protector of England, involved in the English Civil War (1599 - 1658)
51. James Madison: 4th U.S. president, involved in the War of 1812 (1751 - 1836)
52. Guatama Buddha: central figure of Buddhism (563 - 483 B.C.)
53. Mark Twain: American author, wrote "Huckleberry Finn" (1835 - 1910)
54. Edgar Allen Poe: American author, wrote "The Raven" (1809 - 1849)
55. Joseph Smith: American religious leader, founded Mormonism (1805 - 1844)
56. Adam Smith: Economist, wrote "The Wealth Of Nations" (1723 - 1790)
57. David: Biblical King of Israel, founded Jerusalem (1040 - 970 B.C.)
58. George III: King of England, involved in the American Revolution (1738 - 1820)
59. Immanuel Kant: German philosopher, wrote "Critique Of Pure Reason" (1724 - 1804)
60. James Cook: Explorer and discoverer of Hawaii and Australia (1728 - 1779)
61. John Adams: Founding Father and 2nd U.S. president (1735 - 1826)
62. Richard Wagner: German composer, wrote "Der Ring Des Nibelungen" (1813 - 1883)
63. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Russian composer, wrote the "1812 Overture" (1840 - 1893)
64. Voltaire: French Enlightenment philosopher, wrote "Candidate" (1694 - 1778)
65. Saint Peter: Early Christian leader (?-?)
66. Andrew Jackson: 7th U.S. president, also known as "Old Hickory" (1767 - 1845)
67. Constantine the Great: Emperor of Rome, first Christian emperor (272-337)
68. Socrates: Greek philosopher and teacher, sentenced to death by hemlock (469 - 399 B.C.)
69. Elvis Presley: The "king of rock and roll" (1935 - 1977)
70. William the Conqueror: King of England, Norman Conquest (1027 - 1087)
71. John F. Kennedy: 35th U.S. president, Cuban Missile Crisis (1917 - 1963)
72. Augustine of Hippo: Early Christian theologian, wrote "The City of God" (354 - 430)
73. Vincent Van Gogh: Post-impressionist painter, painted "Starry Night" (1853 - 1890)
74. Nicolaus Copernicus: Astronomer, theorized a heliocentric cosmology (1473 - 1543)
75. Vladimir Lenin: Soviet revolutionary and Premier of USSR (1870 - 1924)
76. Robert E. Lee: Confederate General during the U.S. Civil War (1807 - 1870)
77. Oscar Wilde: Irish author and poet, wrote "The Picture of Dorian Grey" (1854 - 1900)
78. Charles II: King of England, post-Cromwell (1630 - 1685)
79. Cicero: Roman statesman and orator, wrote "On the Republic" (106 - 43 B.C.)
80. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: philosopher, wrote "On the Social Contract" (1712 - 1778)
81. Francis Bacon: English scientist, created the Scientific Method (1561 - 1626)
82. Richard Nixon: 37th U.S. president, involved in Watergate (1913 - 1994)
83. Louis XVI: King of France, executed in the French Revolution (1754 - 1793)
84. Charles V: Holy Roman Emporer during the Counter-Reformation (1500 - 1558)
85. King Arthur: Mythical 6th-century King of Britain (? - ?)
86. Michelangelo: Italian sculptor and Renaissance man, sculpted "David" (1475 - 1564)
87. Philip II: King of Spain, organized the Spanish Armada (1527 - 1598)
88. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: German writer and polymath, wrote "Faust" (1749 - 1832)
89. Ali: Early Caliph and a central figure of Sufism (598 - 661)
90. Thomas Aquinas: Italian theologian, "Summa theologiae" (1225 - 1274)
91. Pope John Paul II: 20th-century Polish Pope, Solidarity (1920 - 2005)
92. Rene Descartes: French philosopher, coined "I think, therefore I am" (1596 - 1650)
93. Nikola Tesla: Inventor, discovered alternating current (1856 - 1943)
94. Harry S. Truman: 33rd U.S. president, involved in the Korean War (1884 - 1972)
95. Joan of Arc: French military leader and saint (1412 - 1431)
96. Dante Alighieri: Italian poet, wrote the "Divine Comedy" (1265 - 1321)
97. Otto von Bismarck: 1st chancellor and unifier of modern Germany (1815 - 1898)
98. Grover Cleveland: 22nd and 24th U.S. president (1837 - 1908)
99. John Calvin: French Protestant theologian, founded Calvinism (1509 - 1564)
100. John Locke: English Enlightenment philosopher, theorized "tabula rasa" (1632 - 1704)
Read more in <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Whos-Bigger-Historical-Figures-Really/dp/1107041376/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&amp;qid=1387297630&amp;sr=8-1&amp;keywords=who%27s+bigger+where+historical+figures+really+rank">"Who's Bigger: Where Historical Figures Really Rank</a>."

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Math of the Bard: Shakespeare used a 'crooked figure' for a zero in times when it wasn't widely used

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