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For centuries, the <keyword id="2863171" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="herculaneum" source="Orion">Herculaneum</keyword> <keyword id="20522153" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="papyri" source="keywords">papyri</keyword>, a collection of 800 Greek scrolls preserved by the fiery wrath of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, have remained frustratingly mute. Though not victims of bad handwriting, time and decay rendered their text invisible, locking away their secrets for two millennia. While many know the tragedy of <keyword id="269295" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="pompeii" source="Orion">Pompeii</keyword>, Vesuvius also consumed nearby <keyword id="20008838" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="roman" source="keywords">Roman</keyword> cities, including the affluent Herculaneum in southern Italy. Evidence suggests it was likely a coastal retreat for Rome's elite. Among its preserved wonders was the Villa of the Papyri, an extraordinary library boasting over 1,800 papyrus scrolls — the Herculaneum papyri. Though the eruption's heat miraculously preserved these scrolls, centuries of ink smudging and material breakdown left them unreadable. However, a glimmer of hope has emerged from the ashes thanks to three researchers who harnessed the power of <keyword id="6355999" type="General" weightage="100" keywordseo="AI" source="Orion">AI</keyword> to unlock a portion of one scroll. Their efforts, rewarded with $700,000 in the "Vesuvius Challenge," bring us closer to understanding the lavish lives of the Roman elite. Launched in 2023, the ambitious Vesuvius Challenge aimed to decipher ancient scrolls using "computer vision, machine learning, and hard work." Participants successfully read text from an unopened scroll using virtual unrolling and AI, demonstrating the potential of these techniques. Now, the goal is to unlock an entire library, scaling up methods to read whole scrolls and establish an efficient process for the 800 scrolls held in Naples. The winning team, comprising <keyword id="20522154" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="youssef-nader" source="keywords">Youssef Nader</keyword>, <keyword id="20522155" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="luke-farritor" source="keywords">Luke Farritor</keyword>, and <keyword id="20522156" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="julian-schilliger" source="keywords">Julian Schilliger</keyword>, used AI to decipher faint lettering and distinguish ink from the fragile papyrus. Their groundbreaking work recovered around 5% of the text, revealing discussions on "music, food, and how to enjoy life's pleasures." Experts believe these insights may have come from the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus. Intriguingly, the Villa of the Papyri has been linked to Julius Caesar's family, and some believe it could hold thousands more manuscripts. Considering only 3-5% of ancient Greek texts survive, unlocking this library could be revolutionary. The next phase of the competition aims to decipher 85% of the first scroll and pave the way for the remaining 799. Experts like Federica Nicolardi hail this achievement as "the start of a revolution in Herculaneum papyrology and in Greek philosophy in general." As AI tools continue to evolve, they unlock the secrets hidden in the ashes, offering unparalleled insights into the lost world of the Roman elite and enriching our understanding of the ancient world.

AI helps researchers win $700k by decoding contents of 2000-year-old Roman scroll!

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Three students won the Vesuvius Challenge for uncovering text in the Herculaneum papyri.</li><li>The students were awarded a $700,000 prize after using AI to uncover the passages.</li></ul>It pays to be an AI nerd.Earlier this week, three students took home a $700,000 prize for winning the <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/herculaneum-scrolls-vesuvius-challenge-first-word-prize-2023-10">Vesuvius Challenge</a>, a competition that aims to decode the Herculaneum papyri, a collection of papyrus scrolls that have been unreadable for centuries. The students, Youssef Nader, Luke Farritor, and Julian Schilliger, had never met in person but were the first team to uncover at least four legible passages in the scrolls of 140 characters each (the length of just two tweets).“I think this promises a very exciting future where seemingly impossible ideas will become possible,” Nader, a 27-year-old <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/ai-booming-is-phd-necessary-machine-learning-jobs-workers-2024-1">machine-learning Ph.D</a>. student at Freie University in Berlin, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.wsj.com/tech/ai/vesuvius-challenge-ai-herculaneum-scrolls-b27c2e30">told The Wall Street Journal</a>. Farritor, 22, is a student at the University of Nebraska, and Schilliger, 28, is a robotics graduate student at ETH Zurich in Switzerland, the Journal reported.The scrolls were buried in the first century during the <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/american-tourist-fell-into-italian-volcano-trying-recover-his-phone-2022-7">eruption of Mount Vesuvius</a> in the Villa of the Papyri — an Italian countryside estate that historians have linked to Julius Caesar’s father-in-law. About 800 scrolls have been excavated from the site to date. “Some of these texts could completely rewrite the history of key periods of the ancient world,” Robert Fowler, chair of the Herculaneum Society, which raises awareness of the scrolls, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2024-ai-unlock-ancient-world-secrets/?utm_content=business&amp;utm_medium=social&amp;utm_source=twitter&amp;utm_campaign=socialflow-organic&amp;cmpid=socialflow-twitter-business">told Bloomberg</a>. “This is the society from which the modern Western world is descended.”<div type="image" title="Carbonized scroll of Herculaneum papyri." height="2436" width="3500" msid="107590048" hostid="261" sizebytes="835156"></div>And if uncovering them could mark a pivotal point in human history then their burial was a blessing in disguise. Unlike “virtually every ancient text” that decays once exposed to air, the Herculaneum papyri have been “carbonized by the heat of the volcanic debris” and therefore preserved, according to <a target="_blank" href="https://scrollprize.org/">the Vesuvius Challenge’s website</a>. Three tech industry veterans — former Github CEO Nat Friedman, founder of the search engine Cue, Daniel Gross, and computer science professor Brent Seales — launched the competition in March 2023. It is backed by a bevy of entrepreneurs, investors, and key figures in the tech industry. This year's winners built upon work already underway by Seales, who used X-ray tomography and computer vision to “virtually unwrap” the scrolls. From there, machine learning models can be used to identify ink and, ultimately, decipher words.The passages the winning team uncracked were likely written by the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus and touch on "music, food, and how to enjoy life's pleasures," according to a post by Friedman on X. "In the closing section, he throws shade at unnamed ideological adversaries — perhaps the stoics? — who "have nothing to say about pleasure, either in general or in particular," Friedman explained. The competition's big winners helped uncover about 5% of one scroll, but the competition doled out more than 50 prizes last year, totaling more than $1 million to teams who helped find the first letters in the scrolls, assisted with ink detection, and developed open source tools.This year, the bar is even higher, though the payout is lower. The Vesuvius Challenge hopes entrants will help uncover about 90% of the first four scrolls. The winning team will receive about $100,000. The founders of the Vesuvius Challenge hope they’ll be able to crack open and read the entirety of all 800 scrolls in the next few years.

3 students won $700,000 for using AI to translate 2 tweets worth of text from previously unreadable ancient scrolls

<ul class="summary-list"><li>ChatGPT has made the world familiar with AI that can make everyone more productive.</li><li>But a pair of developments this month show AI could set humans on course for a new age of discovery.</li></ul>In many ways, the <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/everything-you-need-to-know-about-chat-gpt-2023-1">ChatGPT era</a> has opened people's eyes to the ways in which artificial intelligence can help them accomplish tasks at home, in class, or at work.But if that's all you think the algorithms are limited to, think again. A pair of developments this month have shown how <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/how-to-use-chatgpt-at-work-job-save-time-ai-2023-2">AI can help humans</a> peer far beyond the peripheries of space and time they're familiar with to deliver real-world impact.On Monday, it was revealed that a team of researchers had used <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/guides/tech/what-is-machine-learning">machine learning</a> to solve one of archaeology's longest-enduring mysteries by decoding a near 2000-year-old scroll that was almost lost to the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD.The scroll, part of the Herculaneum papyri first discovered in a villa close to Pompeii in the 18th century, survived just enough for researchers to make it a subject of intense interest as they sought to decipher any bit of information they could from it.Those efforts struggled to make headway until former GitHub CEO and Ancient Rome enthusiast <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/github-ceo-nat-friedman-most-valuable-social-network-2020-1">Nat Friedman</a> became aware of its existence.He made it his mission to uncover the scroll's secrets by setting up a competition called the Vesuvius Challenge that invited researchers to use AI techniques like machine learning and computer vision to <a target="_blank" href="https://scrollprize.org/">"resurrect an ancient library from the ashes of a volcano."</a>The efforts seem to have paid off.A trio of researchers hailing from the US, Egypt, and Switzerland won $700,000 after using AI to analyze high-resolution CT scans of the rolled-up scroll, a remarkable feat given the damage that would be caused by attempting to unroll any one of these "lumps of carbonized ash."What they managed to decipher amounts to about 5% of one scroll, equivalent to around 15 columns of text that the Vesuvius Challenge says describe "pleasure" — a concept understood as "the highest good in Epicurean philosophy."<h2>AI is paving the way to the future too</h2><div type="image" title="Bill Gates" height="3142" width="4714" msid="107499527" hostid="261" sizebytes="363196"></div>As well as seeing AI be used to excavate the past, it seems to be getting used to forge a path to the future too.The same day the Vesuvius Challenge unveiled its winner, Bill Gates and Jeff Bezos-backed company <a target="_blank" href="https://www.koboldmetals.com/">KoBold Metals</a> shared that AI played a key role in its discovery of a copper deposit in Zambia that could be the country's largest find in 100 years.Copper is a vital metal for various components in electric vehicles, making it one of the most in-demand materials today. However, analysts have warned that <a target="_blank" href="https://about.bnef.com/blog/copper-prices-may-jump-20-by-2027-as-supply-deficit-rises/#:~:text=By%20Dr.&amp;text=The%20primary%20supply%20of%20copper,million%20metric%20tons%20by%202027.">prices of copper could jump as much as 20% by 2027</a> due to a shortage of supply.According to the company, the "majority of easy-to-find deposits have already been discovered," which means prospecting "mineral deposits of the future" will require looking deep underground.Its process for doing this involves using AI to crunch geoscience data about the Earth's crust — as well as maps and other historical documents — to allow their researchers to start figuring out if there are any deposits hidden in plain sight.The AI can model all this data into a map-style rendering that then allows the company to decide on locations that might hide deposits.<a target="_blank" href="https://x.com/KoBold_Metals/status/1754369261156663402?s=20">KoBold Metals president Josh Goldman</a> reckons that the AI-led discovery represents "one of the world's biggest high-grade large copper mines," having compared it in size to the Kakula mine in the Democratic Republic of Congo, which <a target="_blank" href="https://www.ivanhoemines.com/what-we-do/operations-projects/kamoa-kakula-mining-complex/">produced 393,551 tonnes of copper in 2023.</a>Clearly then, billions of dollars aren't just being spent on AI for the sake of achieving some productivity and efficiency hacks. AI could also help usher humans into a new age of discovery.

AI is setting humanity on the path to a new age of discovery

<ul class="summary-list"><li>An ancient Greek philosopher's musings about "pleasure" have been rediscovered in an ancient passage.</li><li>The passage is from a scroll that was buried after Mount Vesuvius erupted 2,000 years ago.</li></ul><a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/how-companies-are-using-ai-generative-ai-daily-tasks-automation-2024-1">Armed with AI</a>, a trio of young students have accomplished in a single year what scientists couldn't in 272 years.Luke Farritor, a student at the<a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/colleges-with-the-most-school-spirit-2015-8#19-university-of-nebraska-at-lincoln--students-say-theres-an-undeniable-sense-of-unity-around-athletics-at-unl-husker-football-games-are-a-prized-tradition-and-the-team-is-a-strong-contender-in-the-big-ten-conference-2"> University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a> and former SpaceX intern, Youssef Nader, an Egyptian PhD student in Berlin, and Julian Schilliger, a Swiss robotics student in Zurich, deciphered text on a 2,000-year-old papyrus scroll, winning them $700,000 of prize money in the process.The scroll is just one of hundreds that were first excavated in 1752. Named the <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/herculaneum-scrolls-vesuvius-challenge-first-word-prize-2023-10">Herculaneum Scrolls</a>, after the city they were found in, the collection is the only library left from the ancient world. But their secrets remained unknown for the last 272 years.<div type="image" title="A charred black Herculaneum scroll with red laser lines being scanned at Institut de France by Brent Seales and his team" height="720" width="1300" msid="107507244" hostid="261" sizebytes="31378"></div>No one could decipher them because they'd been burned and buried when <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/italy-skeleton-of-a-roman-killed-steps-from-sea-fled-vesuvius-eruption-2021-12">Mount Vesuvius</a> erupted about 2,000 years ago, leaving them charred and far too delicate to unroll. In fact, previous efforts to read them yielded limited success and damaged some of the scrolls.Enter AI technology. The brilliant student trio used a combination of AI and 3D mapping to decipher letter shapes in a small section of the scroll. Their efforts were part of a competition called the Vesuvius Challenge, a contest that launched in 2023 offering <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/aurora-night-sky-phenomena-steve-new-research-2023-12">citizen scientists</a> $1 million in prizes to whomever could transcribe part of the scroll's text.<h2>What the scroll said</h2><div type="image" title="Several rows of Greek writing on black-and-white images of a papyrus scroll" height="900" width="1200" msid="107507245" hostid="261" sizebytes="237096"></div>The newly translated passages are thought to originate from the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus and contain his thoughts on music and food."The Epicureans had much to say about pleasure and pain, and even in this text, there is a discussion of how abundance and scarcity can affect our pleasure," Brent Seales, a computer science professor at the University of Kentucky who took X-ray CT scans of the ancient scrolls in 2009, said in a <a target="_blank" href="https://uknow.uky.edu/research/grand-prize-discovery-made-2000-year-old-herculaneum-scrolls">statement</a>.On Monday, Nat Friedman, a tech executive and former CEO of GitHub who became obsessed with the scrolls during the 2020 Covid lockdown and helped fund the challenge excitedly <a target="_blank" href="https://twitter.com/natfriedman/status/1754519304471814555">posted on X</a> (formerly Twitter): "Today we are overjoyed to announce that our crazy project has succeeded. After 2,000 years, we can finally read the scrolls."<h2>First-prize winner for the second time</h2>Farritor had already won first place in the Vesuvius Challenge's "First Letters Prize," winning him $40,000 last year.He, along with second-place winner Nader, used AI to become the first to read a single word from the scroll. The word was translated from Greek to mean "<a target="_blank" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IVXqisH6VeM">purple dye</a>" or "clothes of purple."<div type="image" title="An image of text from a Herculaneum scroll with ancient Greek letters highlighted in purple" height="750" width="1000" msid="107507246" hostid="261" sizebytes="77328"></div>Several months later, Nader and Farritor, in collaboration with Schilliger had translated entire passages.They went above and beyond the contest's stipulated four columns of text and read an additional 11 partial columns. In total, they transcribed hundreds of words, earning them the grand prize of $700,000.However, the students couldn't have done it without the dedicated work from Seales and his team of researchers.Seales' used the CT scans to <a target="_blank" href="https://www.engr.uky.edu/herculaneum">create</a> the software for virtually unwrapping the scrolls in the first place.<div type="image" title="Seth Parker and Brent Seales scan a replica of the Herculaneum scroll in a machine" height="3200" width="4800" msid="107507247" hostid="261" sizebytes="367948"></div>He and a team of researchers then flattened out the images so they weren't on top of each other like the layers of an onion, and then used machine learning to identify areas with ink.Currently, researchers have only unrolled and deciphered about 5% of a single scroll. Scholars are hoping to find lost treasures from Aristotle or Homer in the other 280 papyri, <a target="_blank" href="https://affiliate.insider.com?h=42f6ab98441e9ce915982c117acf1c43822ecd285bd4ae5f9282eeab96490b72&amp;postID=65c2139c72404cb0557486c2&amp;postSlug=ai-decipher-ancient-philosophers-work-buried-mount-vesuvius-2024-2&amp;site=bi&amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fd41586-024-00346-8">Nature</a> reported.

A former SpaceX intern and 2 other students won $700,000 for deciphering a 2,000-year-old papyrus scroll using AI. Here's what it said.

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Almost 2,000 years ago, Mount Vesuvius buried hundreds of papyrus scrolls in the city of Herculaneum.</li><li>The scrolls can't be unrolled so the Vesuvius Challenge was launched to find alternative methods.</li></ul>Luke Farritor, a 21-year-old undergraduate student at the <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/colleges-with-the-most-school-spirit-2015-8#19-university-of-nebraska-at-lincoln--students-say-theres-an-undeniable-sense-of-unity-around-athletics-at-unl-husker-football-games-are-a-prized-tradition-and-the-team-is-a-strong-contender-in-the-big-ten-conference-2">University of Nebraska</a>, just won $40,000 for a breakthrough discovery in science. Farritor was the first to read a word from one of the ancient Herculaneum scrolls as part of the <a href="https://scrollprize.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Vesuvius Challenge</a> — a competition with $1,000,000 in prizes for people who can unlock the secrets of these <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/photos-of-dead-sea-scrolls-cave-expedition-in-qumran-cliffs-2017-2">ancient scrolls</a> using modern technology. <h2>Why the Herculaneum scrolls can't be read like normal</h2>When <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/mount-vesuvius-digitalglobes-top-image-of-the-year-2014-1">Mount Vesuvius</a> erupted in 79 CE, <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/scientists-sequence-ancient-pompeii-victims-genome-for-the-first-time-2022-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pompeii</a> wasn't the only town it obliterated. Mudslides and immense heat reached all the way to the prosperous <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/visiting-pompeii-and-herculaneum-are-2-very-different-experiences-2019-7">city of Herculaneum,</a> in what is now Itlay. The heat was so intense, it instantaneously transformed hundreds of papyri scrolls into fossilized chunks of carbon. Those ancient scrolls then lay buried in mud for 1,700 years until they were finally excavated in 1752. Any attempts to unfurl the Herculaneum scrolls, which now resemble charcoal logs, would damage them beyond repair."These are such crazy objects. They're all crumpled and crushed," Federica Nicolardi, a member of the academic committee that reviewed Farritor's findings, told Nature.<div type="image" title="Seth Parker and Brent Seales scan a replica of the Herculaneum scroll in a machine" height="3200" width="4800" msid="104384489" hostid="261" sizebytes="367948"></div>That's where modern-day technology comes in.Instead, researchers have used X-rays and <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/guides/tech/what-is-machine-learning">machine learning</a> to read a word from one of the scrolls for the very first time. As part of the Vesuvius Challenge, the University of Kentucky recruited citizen scientists to use AI to parse out words from the X-ray images of the still-rolled scrolls. Farritor was the first to read a word from the scroll and was awarded $40,000 from the Vesuvius Challenge at a <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w0EsoAbRk1M" target="_blank" rel="noopener">press conference</a> announcing the finding on Thursday. <h2>Purple cloth </h2>To win the prize, Farritor needed to detect at least 10 legible letters on the scroll. Working on a region that was less than a square inch, Farritor's algorithm detected several letters, including a complete word. Farritor was the first person to submit enough legible letters to win the prize."I saw these letters and I just completely freaked out," he said during the press conference. "I freaked out, almost fell over, almost cried."<div type="image" title="An image of text from a Herculaneum scroll with ancient Greek letters highlighted in purple" height="750" width="1000" msid="104384491" hostid="261" sizebytes="77328"></div>Niccolardi, a professor of classics at the University of Naples Federico II, read the ancient Greek word, "πορφυρας" which means either "purple dye" or "cloths of purple." While she noted that there isn't enough context to understand what the scroll is saying, she said she's confident scholars will soon be able to read more of the document. "I think this will be a great revolution" in the field of papyrology. She noted that these are unknown texts, making their unraveling of great interest to literary scholars as well. When they do get the full picture of what the scroll contains, Brent Seales, a computer scientist at the University of Kentucky, expects it to contain familiar themes."What I expect is writing that expresses what it means to be human, speaking of love and of war and of the things that still matter to us because <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/geoffrey-hinton-ai-smarter-than-humans-openai-godfather-chatgpt-2023-10">we are human</a>, just like they were human."<h2>The future of unwrapped scrolls </h2>With so many of the scrolls unread, there's still a grand prize, worth $700,000, on the line. To win, a team will have to read four passages from the two scanned scrolls. <div type="image" title="12 brown pieces of the opened Herculaneum papyrus scroll known as P.Herc.118" height="938" width="1500" msid="104384492" hostid="261" sizebytes="165854"></div>Seales said it's not just ancient texts that could benefit from the techniques the university is using.He noted that the Frankin papers, damaged documents that were part of an expedition to the Arctic, are a candidate."It's unclear what's written on those papers," he said. Virtual unwrapping might be the thing that could reveal it."

A 21-year-old won $40,000 for using AI to read the first word on a 2,000-year-old papyrus scroll buried by Mount Vesuvius

<ul class="summary-list"><li>More than 2,000 mummified ram heads have been discovered in Egypt.</li><li>Archaeologists at the King Ramses II Temple of Abydos found the mummified remains.</li></ul>More than 2,000 mummified ram heads and a palatial Old Kingdom structure have been uncovered by archaeologists at the King Ramses II Temple of Abydos.The finds, located roughly 270 miles south of Cairo, come from a period of over 1,000 years, from the Sixth Dynasty to the Heroic Age, making some of the discoveries over 4,300 years old. <div type="image" title="One of the ancient ram heads discovered" height="922" width="1230" msid="99012828" hostid="261" sizebytes="113356"></div>In addition to the ancient ram's head, archaeologists from the University of New York also discovered a group of mummified dogs, wild goats, cows, deer and an ostrich. The mummified remains are believed to have been left at the site to honor Ramses II about 1,000 years after his death, the Egyptian Ministry for Tourism and Antiquities <a href="https://www.facebook.com/tourismandantiq/posts/pfbid02rzm4F4ATiSCary6Xaw6U8x6jJFWXZjbV5EaiikcYrFBKxyPnqL8ZYa5gdEsEUYAnl" target="_blank" rel="noopener">said</a>.It is thought that the rams and other animals would have been used as offerings during worship of the rams in Abydus during the Bipidus period, Dr Sameh Iskandar, head of the mission added in a statement. <div type="image" title="View of a new area uncovered by a team from New York University- Institute for the Study of the Ancient World (ISAW) at the temple of Ramesses II in Abydos, Sohag Governorate, Egypt, in this handout image released on March 25, 2023." height="691" width="922" msid="99012830" hostid="261" sizebytes="87140"></div>In addition to the wealth of animal remains, the archaeological team also uncovered a "huge building" with walls roughly five meters thick from the Old Kingdom's sixth dynasty. The structure contained a number of statues, tree remains, leather shoes, clothing, and papyri.The discovery could help "reestablish the sense of the ancient landscape of Abydos before the construction of the Ramses II temple," Iskandar said, <a href="https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/ancient-egypt-excavation-uncovers-2000-mummified-ram-heads-abydos-2023-03-25/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">per Reuters.</a>

You Searched For "papyri" and got 6 results

AI helps researchers win $700k by decoding contents of 2000-year-old Roman scroll!

Ankush Banerjee

3 students won $700,000 for using AI to translate 2 tweets worth of text from previously unreadable ancient scrolls

Lakshmi Varanasi

AI is setting humanity on the path to a new age of discovery

Hasan Chowdhury

A former SpaceX intern and 2 other students won $700,000 for deciphering a 2,000-year-old papyrus scroll using AI. Here's what it said.

Beatrice Nolan

A 21-year-old won $40,000 for using AI to read the first word on a 2,000-year-old papyrus scroll buried by Mount Vesuvius

Jenny McGrath

2,000 mummified ram heads left in honor of Egypt's most powerful pharaoh are found inside an ancient temple

Bethany Dawson

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