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We Earthlings are all too familiar with frost. That crisp, white layer we see on cold mornings, which forms when atmospheric water vapour condenses and freezes on surfaces, is a signature characteristic of Earthly winters.<br /><br />But on <keyword id="47638" type="General" weightage="100" keywordseo="Mars" source="Orion">Mars</keyword>, where the atmosphere is about 100 times thinner and contains 10,000 times less water vapour than Earth, such icy phenomena are extremely unlikely. <br /><br />Against all odds, scientists have detected water frost at Mars' equator for the first time ever! Even more astonishing, this discovery occurred in a Martian region where frost was once thought to be an impossibility.<br /><cmsannotation type="cmsannotation" annotationid="Space cameras peek at Martian peaks, unveil their frosty secrets" comment="subhead" text="Space cameras peek at Martian peaks, unveil their frosty secrets"><span data-til="noop">Space cameras peek at Martian peaks, unveil their frosty secrets</span></cmsannotation><br />The frosty revelations come from observations of the Tharsis region on Mars, which includes some of the solar system's tallest volcanoes: Olympus Mons, Arsia Mons, Ascraeus Mons and Ceraunius Tholus. Here, deposits of transient morning frost were detected on the volcanoes' summits, regions previously assumed to be too warm for frost to form.<br /><br />This breakthrough began with the detection of lighter, bluish areas on the volcanoes' peaks by the Colour and Stereo Surface Imaging System (CaSSIS) on ESA’s ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO). Initially puzzling, these light patches appeared consistently only in early morning observations during Mars' cold seasons.<br /><br /><div type="image" title="mars volcano frost top" msid="110933695" hostid="261" sizebytes="15376" caption="&amp;lt;p&amp;gt;A bird&amp;#39;s eye view of frost on Olympus Mons.&amp;lt;/p&amp;gt;"></div><br />Further investigation confirmed that these lighter areas were indeed water frost, as the High-Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) on ESA's Mars Express also recorded these features. Yet, the origin of this phenomenon remained elusive until researchers conducted numerical simulations to replicate the microclimate of Mars' volcanoes.<br /><br />These simulations, similar to those used in predicting Earth’s weather but tailored for Martian conditions, revealed that the clear zones corresponded with conditions suitable for water condensation. They confirmed that these icy patches were the result of frost forming overnight under the right climatic conditions on Mars.<br /><br />The simulations also showed that surface temperatures on these Martian volcanoes are conducive to the existence of frozen water. However, the intense solar exposure at the equator causes the frost to dissipate rapidly each morning, explaining its transient nature.<br /><br />The frost layer itself is extraordinarily thin, just 10 micrometres thick, reflecting Mars' limited atmospheric water vapour. In terms of volume, the frost could cover about 60 Olympic-sized swimming pools if harvested. Though this seems substantial, it's a minuscule quantity compared to Mars’ total surface area. Nonetheless, it represents a potential resource for future astronauts, who could use it for drinking water or converting it into rocket fuel.<br /><br />This discovery not only enhances our understanding of Mars' current water cycle, but also offers clues about its past climate and potential habitability. By refining our knowledge of Martian weather patterns, we can better prepare for future exploration and continue unravelling the mysteries of the Red Planet.<br /><br />These findings were recently published in the journal <em>Nature Geoscience</em> and can be accessed <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01457-7">here</a>.<br />

Scientists have found frost on Mars’ volcano peaks, enough to fill 60 Olympic-sized swimming pools!

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Kalind Carpenter, 41, is a robotics engineer at NASA in Pasadena, California.</li><li>Carpenter builds space robots that climb ice walls and dive into extraterrestrial oceans.</li></ul><p><em>This as-told-to essay is based on a conversation with </em><a href="https://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/who-we-are/people/kalind_carpenter/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><em>Kalind Carpenter</em></a><em>, a 41-year-old robotics engineer from Pasadena, California, about building robots for NASA. It has been edited for length and clarity.</em></p><p>I remember the first day I walked through the doors of NASA and I was shown the building where the Moon rovers were born. I was hooked. </p><p>I studied industrial and product engineering at Arizona State University and then started a master's program in mechanical engineering at California State University in 2010. California State partnered with NASA, which meant during my master's I was given the chance to be a researcher on a NASA-backed project for 18 months.</p><p>Before my master's was complete, I was working as an engineering intern for NASA in Pasadena. Without <a href="https://www.calstatela.edu/ecst/cal-state-la-receives-5-million-nasa-grant-research-center" target="_blank" rel="noopener">CSU-LA's relationship as a NASA research center</a>, I wouldn't have had these opportunities. I cried with joy when I was accepted. Now, I work in NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.</p><h2>Over the last 8 years, I've helped create robots </h2><p>I represented ASU in gymnastics, and this skill has helped me think of all the different ways I can make robots balance and move. I worked on the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/robotics-at-jpl/a-puffer">Puffer</a>, a robot for Mars that inflates on location — its tractor-like tires help it roll and climb over steep surfaces. I also worked on<a href="https://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/what-we-do/research-tasks/ice-worm/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> the Ice Worm</a>, which was a robot that can climb iced walls, and I helped create <a href="https://www-robotics.jpl.nasa.gov/how-we-do-it/systems/exobiology-extant-life-surveyor-eels/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">a robot that's designed to find life in the ocean</a> of one of Saturn's moons.</p><p>One of the best perks of working for NASA is being able to see missions come to life. NASA attracts an amazing group of individuals from around the world, and being able to interact with people that you deeply respect is another huge perk — the launch parties are also a plus.</p><p>The most memorable party was the landing party for Mars 2020, during the pandemic, when the <a href="https://www.space.com/mars-perseverance-rover-one-year-landing-anniversary" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Perseverance Rover</a> landed on the Red Planet. It was February 18, 2021, right around Mardi Gras so there were colorful hats everywhere. There were VIP groups, limos, and press, but the strangest thing I can remember is when my colleague and I had to give a presentation on EELS in a huge auditorium later that day. We wore two of the hats so that everyone could see us on stage.</p><p>The Pasadena lab works for years on different iterations of one robot and seeks out the most extreme environments on Earth to test its robots to the limits. I've sent my robots to Antarctica, mapped out volcanic fissures in Hawaii, and used Rainbow Basin and the Pisgah Crater in the Mojave Desert as a Mars analogue.</p><h2>One of my most challenging trips for NASA was in July 2021 </h2><p>I went into the glacier caves of Mount St. Helens volcano. Mount St. Helens is so dangerous that parts of it are <a href="https://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/inside-mount-st-helens-s-crater" target="_blank" rel="noopener">off-limits to the public</a>. On May 18, 1980, <a href="https://time.com/4340219/mount-st-helens-eruption-anniversary/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mount St. Helens erupted</a> with 500 times the force of the Hiroshima bomb. Now, just a handful of glacier-cave explorers and scientists visit the cave each year to look for signs of future eruptions.</p><p>While they're doing their research, we enter the cave with them and test the robots. We chose this network of ice caves filled with steam vents as an analogue for Enceladus, one of the moons of Saturn. Enceladus also has water-vapor vents, but they geyser out into space to make one of the rings of Saturn. I worked with a team to create the articulated Exobiology Extant Life Surveyor (EELS) robot, which looks like a string of beads and adapts to the undulating terrain. It's designed to dive into one of the vents on this moon and explore the ocean below.  </p><p>When we're working in Mount St. Helens, we face rockslides, avalanches, opening crevasses, and poisonous gases. I've been a caver since I was a teenager. For this expedition, NASA protocol required us to hike many of the peaks around Southern California, including Mount Whitney, for physical and environmental training. We also had to do CPR and hypothermia training, and the mountain-safety team provided helicopter, rope, and ice-safety training on site. </p><p>On this expedition, we camped on the glacier at the top of the volcano, but a spate of warm weather melted the glacier under the tents. We had to constantly dig new flat areas where we could pitch the tents.</p><h2>While we were teaching the robot how to find new life on other planets, it helped us potentially find new life on Earth </h2><p>Our goal for this expedition was to test the payload of the EELS. We manually fed the robot samples of dirt and ice from inside the caves so it would learn what to do when it reaches Enceladus. When we ran the samples through a digital holographic microscope, we found single-cell creatures, about 1/100th the thickness of a hair, swimming. </p><p>Our expedition into the cave also helped us test which sensors were able to make accurate maps of this environment. Ice reflects light and lasers differently than rocks and plants, and water vapors make it hard to see as well.</p><p>It will take 12 years for the spacecraft to reach Enceladus from Earth, but it will take EELS just 90 minutes to send its findings back to Earth. It's our hope that the <a href="https://www.planetary.org/articles/meet-orbilander-enceladus-mission">Orbilander flight in 2038</a> will carry an EELS robot.</p><h2>When I was 4 years old, I used to look up at the nights' sky above my parents' farm and dream of being an astronaut </h2><p>When I was eight, I asked for my bedroom to be wallpapered with pictures of the planets, and by the time I was 10 years old, I was building Lego space bases, robots, and spaceships.</p><p>I still dream about the Moon, but now I'm also thinking about the ocean world and moons that lie throughout our solar system. I know the technologies being built will help us on Earth to fight climate change, produce sustainable power, and increase food safety and security. </p><p>At the same time, as a robotics engineer for NASA, I also aim to inspire more four-year-olds to pursue their dreams and bring a better future.</p>

I build robots for NASA. I face avalanches, poisonous gases, and even live volcanoes to test my inventions — it's dangerous, but I love it.

24 awe-inspiring places to go in the Canary Islands, from dazzling sand dunes to volcano treks and secluded beach coves

<p>Mt. Everest might be the tallest mountain on Earth, but it's nothing compared to the tallest volcanic mountain in the solar system, Olympus Mons on our red cousin Mars.</p>
<p><a href="https://twitter.com/Betelgeuse10">John Brady</a> at <a href="http://astronomycentral.co.uk/astronomy-the-size-of-stuff/">Astronomy Central</a> shows, in the image below, what this gargantuan feature would look like if it were on the continent of North America - it would completely cover the state of Arizona!</p>
<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table full click-to-enlarge"><div><div class="image on-image"><a title_source="John Brady" title_caption="" class="zoomin" href="https://static-ssl.businessinsider.com/image/54b3015e6bb3f7551d36bd2b-960/olympus-mons.jpg"><span class="sprites click-to-enlarge-icon" title="Click to enlarge"></span></a><p class="source"><span><a href="http://astronomycentral.co.uk/astronomy-the-size-of-stuff/">John Brady</a></span></p></div><p></p></div></div>Named for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus_Mons">Mt. Olympus</a> - the highest mountain in Greece - Olympus Mons towers 16 miles above the Martian surface - three times taller than Mt. Everest. This mountain is also <a href="http://www.universetoday.com/14849/olympus-mons-on-mars/">the largest volcano</a> in the solar system with a caldera at its summit that is <a href="http://www.space.com/20133-olympus-mons-giant-mountain-of-mars.html">53 miles across</a>. Here's what that looks like compared to Everest:</p>
<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table full"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div>The caldera is easily visible as the small, central circle in the NASA picture below of Olympus Mons, the zit-looking mound in the upper center, which Brady used for his comparison image.</p>
<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table full click-to-enlarge"><div><div class="image on-image"><a title_source="NASA" title_caption="" class="zoomin" href="https://static-ssl.businessinsider.com/image/54b31cba6bb3f7481536bd28-960/mars-olympus-mons.jpg"><span class="sprites click-to-enlarge-icon" title="Click to enlarge"></span></a><p class="source"><span><a href="http://astronomycentral.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Mars-Olympus-Mons.jpg">NASA</a></span></p></div><p></p></div></div>With a diameter of 375 miles, Olympus Mons is part of the largest volcanic region on Mars called the <a href="http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/atlas/tharsis-montes.html">Tharsis Montes</a>. The region spans 2,500 miles across the surface of Mars and contains 12 large volcanoes that are up to 100 times larger than any volcanoes on Earth.</p>
<p>Like the volcanoes that formed the Hawaiian islands, <a href="http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/atlas/olympus-mons.html">Olympus Mons is a shield volcano</a>, which is named after its shape, which resembles a warrior's shield. Shield volcanoes erupt lava that flows more easily than lava from some other eruptions, which means the lava travels a further distance before cooling and hardening giving shield volcanoes their distinctive shape, which you can clearly see in the NASA image below:</p>
<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table full"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div>Eruptions, which could <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OCOW9rHZu2Y">last for hundreds of years at a time</a>, and subsequent lava flows built a ridge up around the central peak of Olympus Mons, shown in the computer-generated view below. This ridge is estimated to be 6 miles high - higher than the tallest point on Mt. Everest, which is 5.5 miles above sea level.</p>
<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table full click-to-enlarge"><div><div class="image on-image"><a title_source="NASA/MOLA Science Team/ O. de Goursac, Adrian Lark" title_caption="" class="zoomin" href="https://static-ssl.businessinsider.com/image/54b3e58c69bedddf28c9b87e-960/olymons.jpg"><span class="sprites click-to-enlarge-icon" title="Click to enlarge"></span></a><p class="source"><span><a href="http://www.space.com/20133-olympus-mons-giant-mountain-of-mars.html">NASA/MOLA Science Team/ O. de Goursac, Adrian Lark</a></span></p></div><p></p></div></div>Scientists estimate that the last time Olympus Mons erupted lava onto the Martian surface was between 20 and 200 million years ago - around the same time that dinosaurs roamed the Earth</p>
<p>While <a href="http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/oldroot/volcanoes/planet_volcano/mars/Overview.html">some scientists</a> think that this last eruption on Olympus Mons marks the last breath of volcanic activity on Mars, <a href="http://www.space.com/4509-martian-volcanoes-extinct.html">others suggest</a> this monstrous volcano is still active despite being dormant for millions of years. A scary thought when you consider the volcano's colossal size.</p>
<p>Olympus Mons is the largest planetary mountain in the solar system, but there's a mountain on the asteroid, Vesta, that is the largest mountain around. Called Rheasilvia, the mountain is a mere <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tallest_mountains_in_the_Solar_System">315 feet</a> higher than Olympus Mons.</p>

Crazy Image Shows What The Largest Volcano In The Solar System Would Look Like On Earth

<ul class="summary-list"><li>I pictured my May trip to <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/why-i-visit-west-texas-every-winter-big-bend-marfa-2022-12">Big Bend</a> to be picturesque and peaceful but it wasn't really.</li><li>I thought I'd see the Rio Grande in all its glory, but I mostly saw a lot of dry ground.</li></ul><p>When my fiancé said he had a few days off from work at the end of May, we quickly planned a trip to Big Bend National Park.</p><p>Summer was nearing, and I imagined the flowing waters of the Rio Grande against picturesque canyons, fields of desert cacti, and glorious mountain peaks meeting fresh blue Texas sky.</p><p>We reserved a hotel in the area and drove 10 hours from <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/the-best-food-in-houston-texas-locals-guide-2019-10">Houston</a> to the park. Unfortunately, our trip wasn't quite what I hoped.</p><h2 id="67ce32cc-f91a-4d8e-9d01-2cd18bdd8e3c"><strong>The vastness and seclusion of the dry desert landscape were intimidating from the start</strong></h2><div type="image" title="View of mountains from lodge" height="972" width="1296" msid="111731343" hostid="261" sizebytes="134880"></div><p>When we arrived at the park, we paid $30 for an entrance pass and then traveled another 35 miles to our lodging site, Chisos Mountain Lodge.</p><p>I liked that the simple rooms in our lodge provided <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/dolly-parton-heartsong-resort-review-mountain-view-near-dollywood-2023-11">mountain views</a> of the heart of the park, which formed from a volcano eruption over 30 million years ago.</p><p>The surrounding Chisos Mountains looked ghostly, with eroded rough cliffs and shadowed formations that looked like mysterious creatures.</p><p>Although we were in the heart of Big Bend, we quickly realized we'd have a lot more driving to do throughout this trip. The drive from our lodge to Santa Elena Canyon alone was over 90 miles there and back.</p><p>I hadn't realized just how massive Big Bend National Park would feel at 1,200 square miles of land or just how spread out its landmarks were.</p><p>Most of the remote drives made me feel like I was on Mars. Every plant and cactus we passed looked parched from the scorching sun and sweltering heat. </p><p>I felt like desert prey as the signage we passed warned of rattlesnakes, mountain lions, and <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/what-to-do-if-you-see-a-bear-attack-2019-4">black bears</a>.</p><h2 id="1b6448b4-9bce-4b90-abd2-d3b92714ade3">We saw some beautiful views, but <strong>I didn't realize the glorious Rio Grande might be dry</strong></h2><div type="image" title="Ross Maxwell Scenic Drive" height="1404" width="1872" msid="111731337" hostid="261" sizebytes="188372"></div><p>We explored the easy Window View Trail, which offers a beautiful vista of the "window" formed between the mountains. It was outstanding at sunset.</p><p>Then we ventured on the rocky Chisos Basin Loop Trail, an easy-to-moderate hike that introduced us to views of Emory Peak, the highest in the park, and the square-shaped Casa Grande Peak.</p><p>I was especially excited to see the magnificent Santa Elena Canyon, a gorge where the Rio Grande splits the land between the US and Mexico.</p><p>To get there, we took the Ross Maxwell Scenic Drive, a geological wonder where volcanic ash and various rock formations meet. We didn't pass anyone on the road, just a coyote and vultures.</p><p>When the 1,500-foot-high limestone cliffs and Santa Elena's gorgeous purplish and beige colors came into view, I straightened up in my seat.</p><p>I was expecting to see sunlight beam off the ripples of the river between glorious canyon walls. Instead, I mostly saw dry, cracked ground.</p><div type="image" title="Santa Elena Canyon" height="720" width="960" msid="111731339" hostid="261" sizebytes="226186"></div><p>I didn't know I might not see the Rio Grande in all its glory, but I later learned that it was always possible.</p><p>In 2022, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.taosnews.com/news/environment/rio-grande-in-abq-to-dry-for-second-time-in-40-years/article_e496bb12-418b-5338-bce2-11b9a161a556.html">Rio Grande dried out</a> for the first time in about 40 years due to factors like persistent drought and lack of rainfall.</p><p>It began happening again in 2023, and with <a target="_blank" href="https://www.texastribune.org/2024/04/18/south-texas-drought-agriculture/">many hot days ahead</a> in Texas, it's not out of the question for the future. I wish I'd reigned in my expectations by looking into the state of the river before we left.</p><h2 id="c72bb271-6a67-47b0-a3f0-20875cbfdb1d"><strong>I wasn't prepared to deal with the heat or how scared I'd be of wildlife</strong></h2><p>Getting to one of the park's most famous photo spots, The Balanced Rock, meant driving on an extremely intense rocky road. I couldn't see the hood of the SUV as we spent miles dipping up and down like we were on a roller coaster.</p><p>We parked near a sandy trailhead and set off on a steady pace. It was only a 2-mile round-trip hike through a boulder field, but all I could think about was mountain lions.</p><p>The hills were covered in clusters of huge boulders casting shadows, which seemed like the perfect spot for a lion's den. There are about <a target="_blank" href="https://www.nps.gov/bibe/learn/nature/mt-lions.htm">150 lion sightings</a> at the park a year, and although only a few encounters have resulted in attacks, I was still on edge.</p><p>The hike's incline didn't help, either. I could feel my energy quickly evaporate while scrambling and pulling myself over steep boulders in the blazing sun.</p><p>In Big Bend, temperatures can <a target="_blank" href="https://www.nps.gov/bibe/planyourvisit/weather.htm">hit 100 degrees Fahrenheit by late morning</a> in May.</p><p>When I saw the famous Balanced Rock, I'll admit, I wasn't as impressed as I should've been. I was too hot, sunburned, and dehydrated to appreciate the poised composure of the huge boulder balancing atop other rock formations.</p><h2 id="d7df9a8c-13ba-4291-96d6-c596e3b7dec6">Many find Big Bend to be paradise, but I'm not sure it was for me</h2><div type="image" title="Author Isobella Jade posing on The Balanced Rock in Big Bend " height="2268" width="3024" msid="111731346" hostid="261" sizebytes="1198760"></div><p>While driving toward the park's exit, I didn't look back.</p><p>We saw some <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/most-beautiful-views-in-america-each-state-2018-5">beautiful views</a> during our trip, but I found myself uninterested in doing too many challenging climbs to see more eroded cliffs.</p><p>I learned Big Bend is not a park where one can just "wing it." Hiking in the heat is no joke, and the weather can easily impact plans.</p><p>Had I realized the great driving distance between each landmark we wanted to see, I would've planned to visit only one a day so I could enjoy them without tiring myself out in the heat. I also really wish we'd visited during a cooler month, like March.</p><p>Still, Big Bend welcomes <a target="_blank" href="https://www.marfapublicradio.org/2024-02-06/big-bend-national-park-saw-plateau-in-visitors-last-year-new-data-show">over 500,000 visitors each year</a>. I'm sure many of them resonate with mountainous and wide-open desert landscapes, enjoy isolation, and trust themselves to hike in the heat.</p>

I spent 3 days hiking Big Bend. The famous national park had some cool views, but I'd never go back.

<ul class="summary-list"><li><a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-starlink-customers-angry-service-contact-order-update-internet-2021-9">SpaceX</a> is launching its first <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-astronaut-warns-tourists-that-spaceflight-is-uncomfortable-risky-2021-8">spaceship full of civilians</a> into orbit on Wednesday.</li><li>The crew of this <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-inspiration4-civilian-flight-netflix-documentary-series-elon-musk-2021-8">Inspiration4</a> mission completed an intense five-month training program with <keyword id="11908743" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="60" keywordseo="spacex" source="Orion">SpaceX</keyword>.</li><li>They climbed Mount Rainier, did a 30-hour simulation inside the <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-civilian-crew-view-from-spaceship-toilet-2021-6">Crew Dragon spaceship</a>, and took a zero-gravity plane ride.</li></ul><p><a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/liquid-oxygen-shortage-covid-spacex-gwynne-shotwell-impact-rocket-launches-2021-8">SpaceX</a> is about to attempt a new first: launching a spaceship full of people who aren't professional <keyword id="11937986" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="60" keywordseo="astronauts" source="Orion">astronauts</keyword> into orbit.</p><p>The four-person crew consists of <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-final-members-of-the-all-civilian-inspiration4mission-revealed-2021-4">a billionaire, a physician-assistant, an engineer, and a scientist</a>. On Wednesday, weather permitting, they'll climb aboard a <keyword id="11937989" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="60" keywordseo="crew-dragon" source="Orion">Crew Dragon</keyword> spaceship atop a <keyword id="12067647" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="60" keywordseo="falcon-9" source="Orion">Falcon 9</keyword> rocket, then roar into space. They're set to orbit Earth for three days, enjoying the views and collecting data for scientific research, then plummet back through the atmosphere and parachute to a safe landing. They call their mission <keyword id="12067645" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="60" keywordseo="inspiration4" source="Orion">Inspiration4</keyword>.</p><p>Billionaire <keyword id="12067646" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="60" keywordseo="jared-isaacman" source="Orion">Jared Isaacman</keyword> chartered the flight from SpaceX and is both footing the bill and commanding the Crew Dragon spaceship. He gave the other three seats to Hayley Arceneaux, who survived bone cancer as a child and now works at St. Jude Children's Research Hospital; Chris Sembroski, an Air Force veteran who works for Lockheed Martin; and Dr. Sian Proctor, a geoscientist who serves as an analogue astronaut in simulations of long-term Mars missions.</p><p>The crew isn't just climbing into the spaceship like you or I might board a plane. They spent five months training - studying manuals, pushing their bodies to new limits, and practicing for worst-case scenarios. They <a href="https://twitter.com/inspiration4x/status/1435992531603427334">completed the training</a>, which is largely based on NASA's program, last week.</p><p>Even though Isaacman has spent thousands of hours flying jets and ex-military aircraft, he told Insider that the astronaut training was "more intense" than he expected.</p><div type="image" title="jared isaacman and sian proctor co-pilot a jet" height="1365" width="2048" msid="86094469" hostid="261"></div><p>"I definitely underestimated it to some extent," he said.</p><p>When billionaires <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/jeff-bezos-launches-to-space-blue-origin-first-human-spaceflight-2021-7">Jeff Bezos</a> and <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/virgin-galactic-rocket-plane-flies-richard-branson-crew-to-space-2021-7">Richard Branson</a> each took their own <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/virgin-galactic-richard-branson-spaceflight-2021-7">rocket rides</a> - flights which skimmed the edge of space but did not enter orbit - neither revealed the details of their training. But the Inspiration4 crew has been sharing its preparations publicly, offering a glimpse into what it takes to prepare amateurs for spaceflight.</p><p>Here's what they've revealed.</p><h2>Step one: Meet your rocket and watch it launch</h2><h2><div type="image" title="hayley arceneaux gestures at distant spacex falcon 9 rocket on launchpad" height="1364" width="1818" msid="86094470" hostid="261"></div></h2><p>Once the Inspiration4 crew was assembled, one of the first things they did together was watch SpaceX launch its <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/taste-test-space-food-launched-with-spacex-astronaut-crew-2021-8">third set of professional astronauts</a> towards the International Space Station.</p><p>Arceneaux had never seen a rocket launch before.</p><div type="image" title="SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket lifts off in the night with crew-2 mission" height="1280" width="1706" msid="86094471" hostid="261"></div><p>"I thought I was gonna have anxiety before the launch, but it was actually really serene," she told Axios reporter Miriam Kramer for the podcast "<a href="https://www.axios.com/podcasts/how-it-happened/">How It Happened</a>."</p><h2>The soon-to-be spacefarers used a centrifuge to simulate the feeling of launch</h2><div type="image" title="chris sembroski sitting inside small white chamber for centrifuge training" height="1365" width="1820" msid="86094472" hostid="261"></div><p>A centrifuge spins really fast to create centrifugal force that pushes things outwards, much like a salad spinner or the spinning carnival ride that presses you against a wall. That force mimics the feeling of launch, when the pull of gravity on your body feels three times its normal strength. Many astronauts and pilots use centrifuges in their training.</p><h2>Isaacman took his teammates up Mount Rainier </h2><div type="image" title="inspiration4 crew members climb mount rainier in snow ice with trekking poles" height="1152" width="1536" msid="86094474" hostid="261"></div><p>Washington's Mount Rainier is a 14,410-foot active volcano covered in glaciers, with punishing weather and hazardous crevasses. Summiting requires ice axes and crampons. So Isaacman decided it would be the perfect place to break the ice with his new crewmates. They climbed the mountain together in early May.</p><div type="image" title="inspiration4 crew members celebrate while climbing mount rainier in snow ice" height="1365" width="1820" msid="86094475" hostid="261"></div><p>"They built some mental toughness. They got comfortable being uncomfortable, which is pretty important," Isaacman said. "Food sucks on the mountain. Temperatures can suck on the mountain. Well, that's no different than Dragon. We don't get to dial up and down the thermostat ... And I can tell you <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/taste-test-space-food-launched-with-spacex-astronaut-crew-2021-8">the food isn't great in space</a>, from what we've tasted so far."</p><h2>After camping, it was time to hit the books</h2><div type="image" title="inspiration4 crew pose in front of display falcon 9 rocket" height="2048" width="1638" msid="86094476" hostid="261"></div><p>After Mount Rainier, the crew flew to SpaceX's headquarters in Hawthorne, California to begin training in earnest.</p><p>"Every day was pretty much a 12-hour day, and then you were getting back to the hotel room, and you're just studying. That was kind of the intense academic portion of the training," Isaacman said.</p><p>They had to learn about the parts of the Falcon 9 rocket and Crew Dragon spaceship, how everything works, and what can go wrong.</p><p>"We have like 3,000 pages across 100 different manuals. It was a lot. I don't think any of us really predicted that," Isaacman said.</p><h2>Then the crew practiced flying Crew Dragon in simulations</h2><div type="image" title="sian proctor wearing a headset looking at a screen in dark blue room" height="1365" width="1820" msid="86094477" hostid="261"></div><p>Inside a mock Crew Dragon model, the Inspiration4 passengers practiced the procedure for launches and landings. Once they got used to how things are supposed to work when all goes smoothly, trainers started adding issues and spacecraft malfunctions to the simulation.</p><p>Some of these exercises involved all four crew members, but some were just for Isaacman and Proctor - the commander and pilot of the mission. Eventually, they were doing full simulations with mission control and a launch director.</p><h2>In early August, the crew did a grueling 30-hour simulation</h2><div type="image" title="nasa astronauts doug hurley bob behnken in spacex spacesuit sit inside crew dragon capsule in front of blue control screens" height="1440" width="1920" msid="86094478" hostid="261"></div><p>Isaacman, Proctor, Arceneaux, and Sembroski put on their spacesuits, climbed in the simulation model of the Crew Dragon, and sealed themselves inside for the 30-hour ordeal. Nobody knew what was coming, not even the mission controllers. A simulation supervisor had pre-programmed everything.</p><p>They practiced a regular launch, with a weather delay included. They ate a meal and slept. But as their simulated mission began to reenter the atmosphere and fall back to Earth, all hell broke loose.</p><div type="image" title="inspiration4 crew members pose in white grey spacex spacesuits in front of crew dragon spaceship" height="2000" width="3000" msid="86099074" hostid="261"></div><p>The Axios podcast recounts what happened. In the simulation, as the Crew Dragon pushed itself into Earth's atmosphere, three computers failed. The crew lost touch with mission control. Then the capsule's parachutes wouldn't deploy.</p><p>"Now you're blind, you can't talk, and there's no way for the chutes to come out. There's also no way for Dragon to stabilize itself during essentially a hypersonic reentry," Isaacman told Kramer.</p><div type="image" title="dragon v2 reentry" height="496" width="902" msid="86094481" hostid="261"></div><p>When they got their bearings, the crew realized the simulation was sending their hypothetical capsule a continent away from its intended splashdown site.</p><p>"It felt very real. You're living in it for 30 hours. The last 45 minutes, there was awareness from us in the capsule, and them on the ground, that there is a chance that this might not be actually a survivable situation," Isaacman told Kramer.</p><p>In the end, they landed safely, but the podcast did not specify how the crew pulled it off.</p><h2>The training also involved fun parabolic flights to simulate microgravity</h2><div type="image" title="inspiration4 crew members screaming joy floating weightless inside plane" height="1365" width="2048" msid="86094482" hostid="261"></div><p>In a parabolic flight, a plane flies in arcs up and down, creating up to 30 seconds of weightlessness at the peak of the arc. Some people call the planes "vomit comets."</p><h2>The team tested their bodies in a high-altitude chamber</h2><div type="image" title="inspiration4 crew members sian proctor and hayley arceneaux wearing gas masks in altitude chamber" height="1365" width="1820" msid="86094483" hostid="261"></div><p>It's rare, but sometimes spaceship cabins become depressurized, just like an airplane cabin. Spaceships typically have oxygen masks on board in case this happens. But it's still helpful to know how your body will react before you slip that mask on. Being familiar with the symptoms of oxygen deprivation can also alert crew members to a cabin leak if the spaceship's systems don't detect it first.</p><p>To experience those symptoms firsthand, under supervision, the crew took to an altitude chamber that exposed them to a low-oxygen environment.</p><p>"It provided great insight into each of our various symptoms," Arceneaux said, according to a <a href="https://twitter.com/inspiration4x/status/1411416162756399106">tweet</a> from the mission's account.</p><h2>They've learned to draw blood and take skin samples</h2><div type="image" title="Inspiration4 crew in a carriage on a wire against blue skies" height="1363" width="1823" msid="86094484" hostid="261"></div><p>Since scientists want more information on how spaceflight affects the body, the Inspiration4 crew offered to gather biological data for NASA. In addition to taking each other's blood and skin samples, the crew will monitor their sleep, take daily cognitive tests on an iPad, and scan their organs with an ultrasound device. Isaacman said they didn't realize quite how extensive this research would be</p><p>"We were like, maybe we should have talked about this before we did it," he said.</p><p>He added that the crew members will have to take skin-cell swabs "three times a day on 10 different parts of our body."</p><h2>The crew squeezed in some jet piloting above SpaceX's facilities in Texas</h2><div type="image" title="jets flying over spacex starship facilities texas" height="1365" width="2048" msid="86094485" hostid="261"></div><p>During their training period, the crew members made public appearances, did media interviews, and took a trip to Space Camp.</p><p>While traveling back and forth across the country, aboard Isaacman's private jets, they made a detour to fly over SpaceX's rocket-development facilities in Boca Chica, Texas. The site, which SpaceX founder Elon Musk calls "Starbase," is where the company is building and testing prototypes of its Starship mega-rocket and Super Heavy booster.</p><p>Earlier in the summer, Isaacman and Proctor also did fighter-jet training in Montana to brush up on their piloting skills. NASA astronauts do the same to practice thinking and responding quickly under stress.</p><div type="image" title="inspiration4 crew poses with arms crossed on the tarmac at kennedy space center in florida" height="1365" width="1820" msid="86094486" hostid="261"></div><p>With their training complete, Isaacman, Proctor, Arceneaux, and Sembroski flew to NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida on Thursday to complete the final preparations for launch.</p><p>They are SpaceX's first commercial passengers, but the company aims to fly more. It already has another such mission lined up in January: For that flight, called AX-1, the company Axiom Space chartered a Crew Dragon to take customers to the International Space Station for eight days.</p><p>The AX-1 crew includes real-estate investor Larry Connor, Canadian investor Mark Pathy, and former Israeli fighter pilot Eytan Stibbe. Axiom Space's vice president, former NASA astronaut Michael López-Alegría, will command the mission. It's not yet clear what their training regimen will be.</p><p><em>This story has been updated. It was originally published September 10, 2021.</em></p>

Photos show how SpaceX's first civilian crew trained by climbing Mount Rainier and flying jets. They launch Wednesday.

<p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image"><p class="source"><span>REUTERS/Carlos Gutierrez </span></p><p class="caption">Lightning flashes around the ash plume above the Puyehue-Cordon Caulle volcano chain near Entrelagos, Chile, June 5, 2011.  </p></div><p></p></div></div>US bank stocks have plummeted this year and <a href="https://twitter.com/georgepearkes/status/695569974845448192">everyone wants to know why</a>.</p><p>Morgan Stanley is down 30% from a year ago, while Goldman Sachs is down 13%. Wells Fargo is down 11%.</p><p>Deutsche Bank analyst Matt O'Connor took a stab at why that is in a recent note.</p><p>He says it's a combination of factors, ranging from a weakening economy to tightening monetary policy and credit concerns.</p><p>Here's the logic:</p><h2>1. The slowing economy</h2><p>O'Connor pointed out that nominal GDP only rose 3% year-on-year in the second half of 2015.</p><p>"One could argue we are already in or near a recession-- or at least are in a recession like environment (not all recessions 'feel' like a recession after all)," O'Connor writes.</p><h2>2. Tightening monetary policy</h2><p>Tightening monetary policy - that is, higher interest rates - might actually not be a good thing for banks. O'Connor writes that banks may have benefited from quantitative easing and low interest rates.</p><p>"During periods of QE, bank stocks rose 2.8% on average per month (vs. just +0.2% during non QE periods). In aggregate, gains during QE accounted for 91% of all gains in the BKX since Mar 2009," he says.</p><p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table click-to-enlarge"><div><div class="image"><a title_source="Deutsche Bank" title_caption="Nominal GDP only rose 3% year-on-year in the second half of 2015." class="zoomin" href="https://static-ssl.businessinsider.com/image/56b4c05a6e97c622048b521e-960/screen shot 2016-02-05 at 10.30.53 am.png"><span class="sprites click-to-enlarge-icon" title="Click to enlarge"></span></a><p class="source"><span>Deutsche Bank</span></p><p class="caption">Nominal GDP only rose 3% year-on-year in the second half of 2015.</p></div><p></p></div></div></p><h2>3. Before the sell off, bank stocks were not cheap</h2><p>Before bank stocks peaked in July, they were trading above the historical long term average "based on expectations that the overall economy was improving" and that "bank earnings would benefit disproportionately vs. the market as the economic growth accelerated."</p><p>So you could argue they had a lot further to fall. </p><h2>4. Banks aren't expected to earn as much this year</h2><p>Earnings expectations for 2016 have dropped 10% in the past six months for market-sensitive banks, according to O'Connor.</p><p>The outlook could get even worse if we see weaker macroeconomic conditions - O'Connor says it could mean a 20%-25% earnings per share (EPS) risk if we see a slight downturn or mild recession. If we see a severe recession, which is unlikely, it could mean a 40-50% potential downturn.</p><h2>5. Credit worries</h2><p>In the fourth quarter, lending standards for banks tightened for the second consecutive quarter. Meanwhile, credit spreads are widening.</p><p>But O'Connor is not too bothered by credit quality concerns.</p><p>"Within consumer lending, we've held the long time view that standards for mortgage and credit cards at the banks have been tight since the crisis," he writes. "As a result, we don't expect further tightening and wouldn't expect consumer credit to deteriorate much if there's a mild recession or near like recession in the US."</p><p>He does, however, see potential pressure in commercial and industrial (C&amp;I) loans, even outside of energy.</p><h2>6. It's normal for bank stocks to underperform the market at times like these</h2><p>The whole market has seen a lot of volatility. And O'Connor's colleague, David Bianco, calculates that right now bank stocks have a beta - which is a measure of the volatility of stock in comparison to the market as a whole - of 2.3x. That is line with many other recent corrections.</p><p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table click-to-enlarge"><div><div class="image"><a title_source="Deutsche Bank" title_caption="" class="zoomin" href="https://static-ssl.businessinsider.com/image/56b4c5b72e526543008b5230-960/screen shot 2016-02-05 at 10.53.57 am.png"><span class="sprites click-to-enlarge-icon" title="Click to enlarge"></span></a><p class="source"><span>Deutsche Bank</span></p></div><p></p></div></div></p>    <div class="margin-top">        <h3>NOW WATCH: <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/new-york-city-rental-prices-out-of-control-2016-2">New York City rental prices are out of control</a></h3>        <div>            <div>        <div class="ooyala-video-player" data-video-autoplay="false" data-video-id="9zYWlvMDE6r-WtXlqEK-DjBYL3bqS7nx" data-player-variable="ooyalapopvideo" id="ooyalaplayer_popvideo" style="width:1280px;height:720px"></div>        </div>        </div>            </div>

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