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It didn't take long for <keyword id="3658" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="india" source="Orion">India</keyword>'s Chandrayaan-3 mission to make waves after its momentous soft-landing on the <keyword id="42440" type="General" weightage="100" keywordseo="moon" source="Orion">Moon</keyword>. In a matter of days, scientists found themselves pondering the causes of the newly discovered enigmatic moonquakes and overheating occurrences on the lunar surface. However, one revelation, in particular, had researchers brimming with anticipation: the unearthing of <keyword id="4417611" type="General" weightage="80" keywordseo="sulphur" source="Orion">sulphur</keyword>.<br /><br />Scientists were aware of the existence of sulphur deposits on the Moon, but they were considered too scant to be of much use. However, this recent discovery turned that assumption on its head.<br /><br />If you were to examine images of the Moon, you'd notice patches of dark and white covering its entire surface. The dark areas consist of volcanic rock, which typically contains higher concentrations of sulphur compared to the white "highlands" material. Volcanic activity causes sulphur-rich rocks deep within the Moon to melt, and they later surface as magma, which eventually cools to form these dark regions.<br /><br />During this process, some of this sulphur inadvertently escapes into the Moon's thin atmosphere. Scientists believe that this sulphur would eventually have made its way to the lunar poles, where the frigid temperatures, dropping as low as -230°C due to the lack of consistent direct sunlight, would cause the element to solidify on the surface.<br /><br />This theory of condensation could explain why the Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer and the LIBS instruments on Chandrayaan-3's <keyword id="7723302" type="General" weightage="50" keywordseo="pragyan-rover" source="Orion">Pragyan Rover</keyword> detected sulphur near the landing site. Further calibration will be necessary to confirm the findings, but initial data suggests that sulphur levels in this area might be significantly higher than those in the volcanic rock near the lunar equator.<br /><br />Planetary scientist Jeffrey Gillis-Davis suggests that the mysterious concentrations of polar sulphur could also have resulted from ancient volcanic eruptions in the region. Meteorites carrying sulphur might have transported substantial amounts of the element when they collided with the Moon in the past.<br /><br />Sulphur holds great promise for a variety of applications in Moon exploration and potential habitation. Given the challenges and expenses of shuttling between <keyword id="6359982" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="earth" source="Orion">Earth</keyword> and the Moon, not to mention the risks involved, having access to abundant local resources can be a literal lifesaver!<br /><br />Jeffrey proposes that scientists could use sulphur to create waterless concrete for building Moon bases and produce sulphur-based solar cells, batteries, and even fertilisers for potential farming operations. The limited water we transport to our lunar neighbour could then be redirected for essential purposes like producing drinking water, breathable oxygen, and rocket fuel.<br /><br />Despite the challenges faced by Chandrayaan-3's <keyword id="7864315" type="General" weightage="50" keywordseo="vikram-lander" source="Orion">Vikram Lander</keyword> and Pragyan Rover in reactivating from their planned slumber, the data gathered by this historic spacecraft is invaluable and is sure to benefit all future lunar missions. When mainstream society eventually takes the inevitable leap to the Moon, they will have ISRO to thank for these groundbreaking discoveries.<br />

Lunar bounty: Chandrayaan-3's sulphur discovery could help us get much closer to building Moon colonies

<br /> The year 2014 is just two days old, marking the beginning of yet another <keyword id="89477" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Gregorian-calendar">Gregorian calendar</keyword> year. But revellers who painted the town red and want more party time need not lose heart. Officially, the year has taken off on January 1, but the regional variants of the New Year’s Day still prevail in a country like India – home to a colourful mélange of cultures and traditions. So we are yet to experience a spate of <keyword id="471694" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="New-Year-festivities">New Year festivities</keyword>, celebrated from <keyword id="6354495" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="kashmir">Kashmir</keyword> to Kanyakumari, from the <keyword id="53478" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="North-East">north-east</keyword> to the western coast.<br />
 <br /> Interestingly, both the Gregorian calendar (introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582) and the previous <keyword id="89476" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="Julian-calendar">Julian calendar</keyword> (first implemented by Julius Caesar in 46 BC) kick off on the same day – January 1. The Romans originally dedicated the first day of the year to Janus, the god of gates, doors and beginnings, and January, the first month of the year, was named after him. Later on, most nations in Western Europe officially started the New Year from January 1. The UK was a late adopter, though, and observed New Year’s Day on <keyword id="47282" type="ENTERTAINMENT" weightage="100" keywordseo="march">March</keyword> 25, popularly known as Lady Day since it celebrated Virgin Mary and the Feast of the Annunciation. This practice stayed in England up to 1752.<br />
 <br /> Closer home, we have many time-reckoning systems but the most significant among them is the <keyword id="1998432" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Sakabda">Sakabda</keyword> or the <keyword id="1998433" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Saka-calendar">Saka calendar</keyword>. It was introduced in 78 AD, most probably by the Kushan ruler Kanishka, and was even used in other countries such as Kampuchea and Indonesia. Another one is the popular <keyword id="1998435" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Bangabda">Bangabda</keyword> or the <keyword id="1282409" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Bengali-calendar">Bengali Calendar</keyword>, a <keyword id="1998436" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Solar-calendar">solar calendar</keyword> started by Mughal emperor <keyword id="6363995" type="PERSON" weightage="80" keywordseo="Akbar">Akbar</keyword> in 1584 AD. Then there is the <keyword id="1998437" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Hijri-New-Year">Hijri New Year</keyword>, also known as the <keyword id="1926173" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Islamic-new-year">Islamic New Year</keyword>, which started in 610 AD when <keyword id="6358086" type="PERSON" weightage="80" keywordseo="Prophet-Muhammad">Prophet Muhammad</keyword> migrated from Mecca to <keyword id="89362" type="CITY" weightage="80" keywordseo="Medina">Medina</keyword>.<br />
 <br /> With so many calendars around and so many regional New Year’s Days to celebrate, it’s time to soak in the traditional rituals once more, mostly observed during the months of <keyword id="368788" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="Chaitra">Chaitra</keyword> and <keyword id="1998439" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Baishakh">Baishakh</keyword> (March-April). Here’s a quick look at the key events.<br />
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<strong><keyword id="4349969" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Navreh">Navreh</keyword> – Kashmir:</strong> Let us start with Navreh, the New Year’s Day in the <keyword id="911185" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Lunar-calendar">lunar calendar</keyword> and observed on the <keyword id="1998440" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Shukla-Pratipada">Shukla Pratipada</keyword> (first day of the waxing moon) in the month of Chaitra (March-April). It is the <keyword id="1998441" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Oldest-New-Year-celebration">oldest New Year celebration</keyword>, and finds mention in historical works such as <em>Nilamat Purana</em>, <keyword id="1998443" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Kalhana">Kalhana</keyword>’s <em><keyword id="1998442" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Rajtarangini">Rajtarangini</keyword></em> and Persian scholar <keyword id="1792427" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="80" keywordseo="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</keyword>’s writing. Each household prepares the ‘<keyword id="1998444" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Holi-thali">holi thali</keyword>’ with great care, containing food, flower and other essentials, and it is viewed at the dawn of Navreh while family members pray for <keyword id="6383453" type="ORGANIZATION" weightage="100" keywordseo="Wealth">wealth</keyword>, knowledge and <keyword id="23119" type="ENTERTAINMENT" weightage="100" keywordseo="good-luck">good luck</keyword>. From this day, <keyword id="1998445" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Nav-Durga-Puja">Nav Durga Puja</keyword> or <keyword id="31525" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Navratra">Navratra</keyword> also begins in Kashmir and continues for 9 days.<br />
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<strong><keyword id="1296432" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Chaitti">Chaitti</keyword> – <keyword id="6358126" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Himachal-Pradesh">Himachal Pradesh</keyword>: </strong>In this hill state, the New Year’s Day is celebrated on the first day of Chaitra according to the <keyword id="1998446" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Vikrami-calendar">Vikrami calendar</keyword> and festivals such as <keyword id="48284" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="navratri">Navratri</keyword> and <keyword id="1998448" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Ralli-Puja">Ralli Puja</keyword> are held throughout the month in honour of Goddess Durga/Bhagwati. The month-long Ralli Puja ends in the marriage of Lord Shiva and the goddess as spinsters seek blessings of the divine duo for a spouse like Lord Shiva.<br />
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<strong><keyword id="42862" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="Ugadi">Ugadi</keyword> – <keyword id="37102" type="COMPANY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Andhra-Pradesh">Andhra Pradesh</keyword> &amp; <keyword id="6354780" type="ENTERTAINMENT" weightage="100" keywordseo="Karnataka">Karnataka</keyword>: </strong>It is celebrated on the same day as Navreh, in the month of Chaitra, and marks the beginning of the South Indian lunar year. People of these southern states believe that Lord Brahma began the creation of the universe on this auspicious day. Houses are decorated with mango leaves and <em><keyword id="202308" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="Rangoli">rangoli</keyword></em> designs; Panchanga or the <keyword id="1998452" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Religious-almanac">religious almanac</keyword> is recited and puja offerings are made for a prosperous New Year. Ugadi <em><keyword id="758269" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="pachadi">pachadi</keyword></em>, the traditional dish of six flavours made of <keyword id="6441002" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="neem">neem</keyword>, <keyword id="137842" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="jaggery">jaggery</keyword> &amp; banana, salt, green chilli/pepper, tamarind juice and unripe mango, is also relished on this occasion to acknowledge six different aspects of life.<br />
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<strong><keyword id="608876" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="Gudhi-Padva">Gudhi Padva</keyword> – <keyword id="13126" type="COMPANY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Maharashtra">Maharashtra</keyword> &amp; <keyword id="826" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Goa">Goa</keyword>: </strong>Observed on the same day as Navreh and Ugadi (Chaitra Shukla Pratipada), the New Year festivities in these states celebrate the bounty of Nature. Houses are decked up with rangoli and colourful <em>gudhi</em> – a bright-hued, embellished silk banner tied to a decorated <keyword id="1808323" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="bamboo-pole">bamboo pole</keyword> and an upside down brass/silver pot fitted on the top. A day after Gudhi Padva, <keyword id="127745" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Cheti-Chand">Cheti Chand</keyword> or the <keyword id="610532" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Sindhi-New-Year">Sindhi New Year</keyword> is observed to celebrate the birth anniversary of <keyword id="1998458" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Ishtadeva-Uderolal">Ishtadeva Uderolal</keyword> or <keyword id="987886" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Jhulelal">Jhulelal</keyword>, the patron saint of the Sindhis. Lord Varuna, the water god, is also worshipped on this day, followed by <keyword id="6771793" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="feasting">feasting</keyword> and <keyword id="240265" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="devotional-music">devotional music</keyword>.<br />
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<strong>Varuda Pirappu/Puthandu – <keyword id="20154" type="ORGANIZATION" weightage="100" keywordseo="tamil-nadu">Tamil Nadu</keyword>: </strong>Held in mid-April, the <keyword id="6407830" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Tamil-New-Year">Tamil New Year</keyword>’s Day is celebrated on the first day of Chithirai, which is the first month of the traditional <keyword id="525554" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Tamil-calendar">Tamil calendar</keyword>. Just like Navreh, the day begins with <keyword id="1998464" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Auspicious-sighting">auspicious sighting</keyword> or <em><keyword id="1009356" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="kanni">Kanni</keyword></em>, as people <keyword id="1873" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Worship">worship</keyword> <keyword id="13726" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="rice">rice</keyword> &amp; farm products, <keyword id="119992" type="ORGANIZATION" weightage="100" keywordseo="precious-metals">precious metals</keyword> and <keyword id="1246513" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="new-clothes">new clothes</keyword>. Ritualistic patterns called <em>kolams</em> are drawn; traditional lamps or <em>kuthu vilakkus</em> are lighted and placed in the centre, and brass bowls known as <em>niraikudums</em> are filled with water to usher in <keyword id="73094" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="prosperity">prosperity</keyword> and <keyword id="800742" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="fulfillment">fulfillment</keyword>. It is followed by the <keyword id="1998469" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Almanac-worship">almanac worship</keyword> called <keyword id="1998471" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Panchanga-Puja">Panchanga Puja</keyword>. And the festive meal features <em>pachadi</em>, fruits and <em>payasam</em> or dessert.<br />
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<strong><keyword id="345699" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="Vishu">Vishu</keyword> – <keyword id="28504" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Kerala">Kerala</keyword>: </strong>Vishu is the <keyword id="1010370" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Malayalam-New-Year">Malayalam New Year</keyword>’s Day, observed in Kerala on the first day of the Malayalam month of Medam. As in other South Indian states, auspicious sighting and other rituals are observed as part of the celebration; <keyword id="51941" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="firecrackers">firecrackers</keyword> are burst and an elaborate <keyword id="1998461" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Festive-lunch">festive lunch</keyword> called <em><keyword id="1998473" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Sadya">sadya</keyword></em> is served.<br />
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<strong><keyword id="1334751" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Poila-Baishakh">Poila Baishakh</keyword> – <keyword id="6357783" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="West-Bengal">West Bengal</keyword>:</strong> The Bengali New Year’s Day is celebrated in the month of Baishakh (mostly on <keyword id="6364510" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="april">April</keyword> 14). Also known as <em><keyword id="989326" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Naba-Barsha">Naba Barsha</keyword></em>, <keyword id="27928" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="Lord-Ganesha">Lord Ganesha</keyword> and <keyword id="462664" type="ORGANIZATION" weightage="100" keywordseo="Goddess-Lakshmi">Goddess Lakshmi</keyword>, deities of wealth, are worshipped on this day while businesses open fresh ledgers known as <em><keyword id="1998474" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Haal-Khata">Haal Khata</keyword></em>. Feasting, festivities and <keyword id="6409104" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="cultural-programmes">cultural programmes</keyword> are the main attractions here. <keyword id="1998475" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Maithili-New-Year">Maithili New Year</keyword> <em><keyword id="1998426" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Juri-Sheetal">Juri Sheetal</keyword></em> is also celebrated on this day.<br />
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<strong><keyword id="1998425" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Maha-Vishuva-Sankranti">Maha Vishuva Sankranti</keyword> – <keyword id="6357961" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Odisha">Odisha</keyword>: </strong>In neighbouring Odisha, the New Year’s Day is also known as <keyword id="1998476" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Pana-Sankranit">Pana Sankranit</keyword> or <keyword id="1998424" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Jala-Sankranti">Jala Sankranti</keyword> or <keyword id="1998427" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Mesha-Sankranti">Mesha Sankranti</keyword> that marks the beginning of a year in the solar calendar. Traditionally held on the first day of Baishakh (mid-April), a sweet drink called <keyword id="1998477" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Pana">Pana</keyword> is made using fruits, card, milk, water and sugar/jaggery and bestowed as <keyword id="1998478" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Puja-offering">puja offering</keyword>. People also drink Pana and water is offered to all, even to birds and animals, for a month. Throughout this period, <keyword id="1998479" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Goddess-Hingula">Goddess Hingula</keyword> is worshipped for driving the evil away. Devotees often keep fast and perform penances as part of the rituals.<br />
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<strong>Rongali/Bohag Bihu – <keyword id="6354915" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Assam">Assam</keyword>: </strong>Held in the month of Baishakh (mid-April), this weeklong colourful and vibrant festival not only marks the beginning of a year in the solar calendar, but also heralds the new agricultural season. As in all other states, pujas are offered to ensure a prosperous year ahead; <keyword id="974604" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="festive-food">festive food</keyword> such as <em>pitha</em> and <em>laru</em> is made and shared, and young people get together to choose their life partners. Fairs are held; games are played, and the traditional <keyword id="1998481" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Bihu-songs">Bihu songs</keyword> &amp; dances make it the perfect season for jollity and merriment.<br />
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<strong><keyword id="1998480" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Cheiraoba">Cheiraoba</keyword> – <keyword id="6359754" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Manipur">Manipur</keyword>: </strong>Moving further north-east, one gets to celebrate the Manipuri New Year Sajibu Cheiraoba in the month of April. Puja offerings, delicious food and festivities mark this occasion as well. In addition, locals climb the nearest hill tops, thus aspiring to rise to great heights in real life.<br />
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<strong>Baisakhi/Vaisakhi – <keyword id="6354953" type="COMPANY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Punjab">Punjab</keyword>: </strong>Traditionally a <keyword id="404010" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="harvest-festival">harvest festival</keyword>, the <keyword id="1011009" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Punjabi-New-Year">Punjabi New Year</keyword>’s Day is held on April 13/14 (the first day of the second month of the year, according to the Nanakshahi Calendar). It is a significant day for the <keyword id="81001" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Sikh-community">Sikh community</keyword> as well since they celebrate the day in honor of the 10th guru, <keyword id="138545" type="PERSON" weightage="80" keywordseo="Guru-Gobind-Singh">Guru Gobind Singh</keyword>, who did away with the <keyword id="6434481" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Caste-System">caste system</keyword>. Otherwise, fun, food and <keyword id="1998485" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Country-dances">country dances</keyword> like <keyword id="6920" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Bhangra">Bhangra</keyword> and <keyword id="465865" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="giddha">Giddha</keyword>, keeping time with the beats of <em>dhols</em> and drums, mark this occasion.<br />
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<strong><keyword id="585610" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Bestu-Varas">Bestu Varas</keyword> – <keyword id="6354766" type="COMPANY" weightage="100" keywordseo="Gujarat">Gujarat</keyword>: </strong>In certain parts of northern and western India, Diwali heralds the New Year and Gujarat is one of them. Bestu Varas is held a day after the Festival of Lights, in the month of <keyword id="6376330" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="Kartik">Kartik</keyword> (October-November) and houses are splendidly decked up with <keyword id="5823" type="PERSON" weightage="100" keywordseo="Flowers">flowers</keyword>, <em>rangoli</em> and <em>torans</em> (door hangings). Pujas are offered; New Year <keyword id="54214" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="100" keywordseo="Fireworks">fireworks</keyword> are everywhere and gifts are generously exchanged. And one must not forget the festive food either, especially the delectable and traditional snacks of Gujarat such as <em><keyword id="107294" type="CITY" weightage="100" keywordseo="farsan">farsan</keyword></em>.<br />
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<strong>Images: </strong>Wikipedia<br />
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New Year Festivities
Not Over Yet; Here Is How India
Celebrates

<p></p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div><ul><li><strong>Elon Musk, the founder of SpaceX, has unveiled a new design for a 100% reusable rocket and spaceship to colonize Mars.</strong></li><li><strong>SpaceX has experience building traditional life support systems for its Crew Dragon capsule, a spaceship built for NASA.</strong></li><li><strong>But independent spaceflight experts say technologies that don't yet exist are necessary to keep Martian colonists alive.</strong></li><li><strong>Musk and SpaceX have yet to detail exactly how hypothetical Mars explorers and colonists will survive.</strong></li></ul><p>At a spaceflight conference in Australia on Friday, Elon Musk unveiled an audacious new plan to build <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-iac-mars-colonization-presentation-2017-9">giant reusable spaceships</a> and colonize Mars with them.</p><p>Industry experts are excited by Musk's vision&#xa0;to back up the human race by putting&#xa0;<a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-mars-colony-details-new-space-study-2017-6">1 million people</a>&#xa0;on a new planet, but many have practical questions for the tech billionaire and founder of SpaceX. Above all, they're eager to know how Musk plans to keep people alive on Mars for months or years on end.</p><p>Musk's <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S5V7R_se1Xc">latest talk</a> at the International Astronautical Congress 2017 in Adelaide updated a roughly <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-mars-speech-transcript-2016-9">one-hour presentation</a> that he gave at the same event in September 2016.</p><p>"The future is vastly more interesting and exciting if we're a space-faring civilization, and a multi-planet species, than if we're not," Musk said on Friday. "I can't think of anything more exciting than going out there among the stars."</p><p></p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div>Musk first unveiled his Mars vehicle design - which he used to call the "Interplanetary Transport System" but now calls the "Big F---ing Rocket" (BFR for short) - during IAC 2016.<p>The original rocket-and-spaceship vehicle was supposed to tower 400 feet, or slightly higher than a <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-falcon-heavy-vs-apollo-saturn-v-rocket-2016-7">Saturn V moon rocket</a>. It was designed to&#xa0;bring up to 300 tons of spaceship cargo - about two blue whales' worth of mass - into orbit around Earth.</p><p>Musk's latest BFR design is about 50 feet shorter, and its spaceship is supposed to carry about half the payload. SpaceX has already built and tested <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-raptor-mars-rocket-engine-2016-9">key pieces</a> of <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-carbon-fiber-fuel-tank-ocean-ship-test-2016-11">hardware</a> in hopes of launching its first mission to Mars in 2022.</p><p>"That's not a typo. Although it is aspirational," Musk said when the date appeared on-screen at the event. "I feel fairly confident that we can complete the ship and be ready or launch in about five years. Five years seems like a long time to me."</p><p>Musk hopes to fly four additional ships to Mars in 2024, including two cargo missions and two ships carrying the first Martian explorers. From there, an increasing number of missions could establish and grow a colony.</p><p><br>"You can do it, Elon!" a man shouted from his seat after hearing these details at the conference.</br></p><p>Some spaceflight engineers and experts, however, are questioning whether he can.</p><p>"Elon lays out an impossibly large vision, and then revises it slightly downward - and people say he's being practical. This is no more practical than it was last year," <a href="https://elliott.gwu.edu/emeritus-faculty#logsdon">John Logsdon</a>, a space policy expert, <a href="https://www.amazon.com/After-Apollo-American-Palgrave-Technology/dp/1137438525">author</a>, and spaceflight historian at George Washington University's Space Policy Institute, told Business Insider. "There are so many questions on the viability of this plan."</p><h2>Big on ambition, thin on details</h2><p></p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div><p>According to Musk's new plan, two uncrewed missions would pave the way for future human exploration of Mars. The first would locate sources of water in the soil, and the second would set up a chemical factory to turn that water, plus carbon dioxide in the thin Martian air, into oxygen and methane rocket fuel.</p><p>After the first people land on Mars, regular cargo launches would resupply them with food and other essentials.</p><p><a href="https://engineering.purdue.edu/ABE/people/ptProfile?resource_id=7380" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">D. Marshall Porterfield</a>, the former director of NASA's Space Life and Physical Sciences Division, said SpaceX's reusable rocket technologies are "a huge game-changer" in terms of lowering <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-rocket-cargo-price-by-weight-2016-6">steep launch costs</a> and enabling such missions.</p><p>"He totally changed the economics," Porterfield, now a professor at Purdue University, told Business Insider during the university's "<a href="https://www.purdue.edu/dawnordoom/">Dawn or Doom</a>" conference before Musk's latest talk.</p><p>For example, SpaceX's Falcon 9 and upcoming <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/falcon-heavy-first-launch-date-2017-6">Falcon Heavy</a> rockets can <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/reusable-rockets-musk-bezos-space-colonies-2017-3">reuse their boosters</a>. These enormous parts represent about <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-reusable-rocket-launch-costs-profits-2017-6">70% of the rockets' cost</a>, and by not throwing them away after every launch - the standard industry practice - the <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-reusable-rocket-launch-costs-profits-2017-6">savings add up quickly</a>.</p><p>A fully reusable rocket and spaceship, as Musk is proposing with the BFR, would compound the savings and open access to space even further by lowering costs 100- or even 1,000-fold, according to Musk.</p><p>"We could assemble space exploration capabilities in orbit [around Earth] and launch a mission to Mars from there," Porterfield said, adding that the first crewed Martian missions will be like "vacations" compared to the "camping trips" of the Apollo program.</p><p>"The scenario in 'The Martian' is completely doable,"&#xa0;he said, referencing the sci-fi book <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/the-martian-movie-facts-guide-2015-10">and movie</a> in which a NASA astronaut is accidentally stranded at a Martian outpost.</p><p></p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div><p>Indeed, SpaceX may have the expertise it needs to get the first explorers to Mars and back alive.</p><p>The company already built the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/eclss-put-to-the-test-for-commercial-crew-missions/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">environmental control and life support system</a>, or ECLSS,&#xa0;that keeps astronauts alive and comfortable on its <a href="http://www.spacex.com/crew-dragon" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Crew Dragon</a> spacecraft.</p><p>NASA is counting on Dragon to ferry its astronauts to and from the International Space Station starting in 2018. (Russia's Soyuz spacecraft is current the only ride to orbit - and it's recently <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-buying-russian-soyuz-seats-2019-2017-1">quadrupled ticket prices</a>.) SpaceX is even pondering a privately funded <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-moon-mission-elon-musk-2017-2">mission around the moon</a> using Dragon and ECLSS.</p><p>In his IAC talks, <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-mars-colony-details-reddit-2016-10">Reddit chats</a>, and other public statements, however, Musk has not detailed how SpaceX will keep the first Martian explorers alive.</p><p></p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div>When Business Insider contacted SpaceX for more details about these plans, a spokesperson responded by emailing several of Musk's prior statements.<p>One came from&#xa0;his IAC 2016 talk, when he compared Mars to California&#xa0;in the early US, and said SpaceX is trying to build the Union Pacific Railroad.</p><p>"Once that transport system is built, then there's a tremendous opportunity for anyone who wants to go to Mars and create something new or build the foundations of a new planet," Musk said at the time.</p><p>Musk also said he expects SpaceX's Mars effort "to be a huge public-private partnership," and that the company is "trying to make as much progress as we can with the resources that we have available." He added that he hopes his plans spur companies to develop their own competing and innovative approaches, and that colonizing Mars - no matter who gets the job done - is his goal.</p><p>SpaceX declined to answer specific questions about whether employees are working on long-term life support systems for Mars, whether Musk thinks such systems will emerge from outside the company, and when Musk plans to release details about such systems.</p><p>Porterfield believes the company needs systems that currently do not exist.</p><p>"His idea about colonizing? That's going to require ... bioregenerative life support capabilities,"&#xa0;he said.</p><h2>Using life to support life</h2><p>The idea behind bioregenerative life support, which Porterfield worked on at NASA, is&#xa0;to collect a human crew's breath, liquid waste, and solid waste - then use plants and other life forms to recycle it into food, water, and air.</p><p>This would reduce the need for resupply missions and help ensure a crew's long-term survival. It would also make a colony vastly more sustainable, affordable, and independent.</p><p>"Biological systems are really resilient," Porterfield said. "They tend to be self-healing, self-repairing, so that's one of the advantages of a bioregenerative life support capability."</p><p>Spacecraft today don't rely on bioregeneration to keep people alive. Instead, they use traditional life support systems - pumps, filters, compressors, chemicals, and the like. SpaceX's ECLSS is one such system.</p><p>Research into these traditional systems flourished during the Cold War, and more recent developments have turned out new capabilities. For instance, the space station recently got a new chemical-mechanical system that can recycle - with 93% efficiency - an astronaut's <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/scott-kelly-will-drink-730-liters-of-recycled-sweat-and-urine-2015-3">urine</a>, evaporated sweat, and breath into <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/water-facts-scientific-statistics-2017-3">drinking water</a>.</p><p><br>Research into biological life support systems also occurred during the Cold War, though to a far lesser extent - for example, one Soviet experiment used algae to generate oxygen inside sealed nuclear bunkers. Since then, a few experiments in&#xa0;orbit and on the ground have shown it's possible to&#xa0;<a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-grows-lettuce-in-space-2015-8">grow edible plants in space</a> and <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/potatoes-mars-growth-cubesat-experiment-2017-3">in Martian soil</a>.</br></p><p>Yet Porterfield said "tremendous challenges" must be overcome before any biology-based technology can fully and reliably keeping people alive in deep space.</p><p>"It's not just a module you can stick on to grow some plants in, and have some fresh salads every once in awhile," he said. "We're really talking about technology that replaces what the Earth does. This is our current bioregenerative life support system."</p><p>In his talk at the "Dawn or Doom" conference, Porterfield brought up the <a href="https://vimeo.com/65819216" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Biosphere 2 experiment in Arizona</a> as an example of the challenges. Eight people lived in the sealed, three-acre habitat for two years with a bounty of plants and animals - yet they quickly encountered problems severe enough to require outside help, including pumping in oxygen.</p><p></p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table float_right"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div>A more compact and successful experiment was NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-plant-researchers-explore-question-of-deep-space-food-crops">Biomass Production Chamber </a>&#xa0;-&#xa0;a giant, sealed greenhouse built inside a hyperbaric chamber at the Kennedy Space Center. The chamber broke world records for food production with a variety of crops from the late 1980s through the early 2000s.<p>But <span>NASA's space greenhouse&#xa0;</span>was scrapped in the 2000s, along with&#xa0;other research into biological life support, due to congressional budget cuts.</p><p>"NASA basically gutted the entire future of spaceflight exploration in order to finish building the space station, and we really haven't fully invested in supporting the sciences required to use the space station today so that we can be competitive," Porterfield said.</p><p>He added that China is poised to overtake the US in bioregeneration with its <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/r-china-tests-self-sustaining-space-station-in-beijing-2017-7">"Lunar Palace-1" experiment</a>, which has sealed four students inside a habitat with plants and animals for a year.</p><h2>'They really don't have a <keyword id="41551" type="ENTERTAINMENT" weightage="100" keywordseo="science">science</keyword> program'</h2><p>A few years ago, when Porterfield worked for NASA, he and some colleagues were invited to SpaceX. Musk pitched a flyby mission to Mars that'd cost about $600 million, and Porterfield and his colleagues were interested.</p><p>"They were going to launch a payload, orbit Mars, and bring it back to Earth,"&#xa0;he said. "For us it would have been a great opportunity to look at radiation environment out beyond the Van Allen Belts, because right now we're at the space station, where we're shielded from that deep-space radiation." (Musk has downplayed the risks of space radiation, though new research suggests it could be <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/martian-radiation-levels-crewed-mission-2017-7">twice as dangerous at Mars</a> as previously thought.)</p><p>Porterfield thought NASA higher-ups would bite, but they ultimately passed on SpaceX's offer.</p><p>"During that time, though, I learned they [SpaceX] really don't have a science program, per se, that would enable them to really consider ... bioregenerative or even just greenhouse-type of technologies in a Mars architecture," Porterfield said.</p><p>Logsdon offered a similarly skeptical assessment.</p><p>"SpaceX is a very good engineering firm. Certainly they're going to design a system that makes every effort for high level of safety," Logsdon said. "But they haven't said a word about how people will survive once they get to Mars. It just isn't a part of their capabilities."</p><p></p><div class="KonaFilter image-container display-table"><div><div class="image on-image"></div><p></p></div></div><p>Despite&#xa0;NASA's budgetary de-emphasis on bioregenerative programs, Porterfield&#xa0;said he hasn't&#xa0;noticed any staff migrations&#xa0;that suggest SpaceX might be acquiring expertise to research bioregenerative capabilities (though he&#xa0;noted he does not keep close tabs on SpaceX's&#xa0;<a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/open-positions-spacex-2017-3">hiring efforts</a>).</p><p>Business Insider shared these and other comments with SpaceX,&#xa0;but a spokesperson declined to provide an on-the-record response.</p><p>If Porterfield had a chance to ask Musk any questions about his Mars plan, he said he'd focus on life support.</p><p>"I'd directly ask him, 'What are you doing in terms of countermeasures for crew health? What's your thinking in that area? Are you just going to, in the moment of finalizing your Mars architecture, are you going to adopt the current countermeasures and polices that NASA is doing?'" he said. "Maybe that's enough. But in terms of other aspects of biological foundations for human exploration, it may not be enough."</p><p><em>Disclosure: The author of this post was also a speaker at the "Dawn or Doom" conference.</em></p><div><div style="position:relative;padding-bottom:55%"></div></div><div><div style="position:relative;padding-bottom:54%"></div></div>    <div class="margin-top">        <h3>NOW WATCH: <a href="http://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-talk-detailed-plans-colonize-mars-2017-9">Watch Elon Musk reveal SpaceX's most detailed plans yet to start colonizing Mars in just 7 years</a></h3>        <div>                    </div>    </div>

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