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Remember the pictures of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Russian President Vladimir Putin locked in a good-natured embrace that had surfaced on the internet not long ago? While they might not be indicative of the leaders’ alignment in their politics, it is certainly representative of the close ties between India and Russia on multiple strategic aspects, including their respective space programs. The two nations have been mostly pally with each other since India’s post-independence — despite tensions between the US and USSR. And what is perhaps the best example of this friendship would be how the Soviet Union has contributed to the establishment and growth of India's space program. <div type="Article" hostid="261" msid="111577453" title="Modi&amp;#39;s Russia visit shows India isn&amp;#39;t worried about making the US mad" mstype="2" mssubtype="0"></div>India's space program, conceived in the 1960s under the visionary leadership of Dr <keyword id="20550009" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="vikram-sarabhai" source="keywords">Vikram Sarabhai</keyword>, was primarily focused on utilising space technology for national development. Unlike the space programs of the United States or the Soviet Union, which were heavily influenced by military competition and the Cold War, India's space endeavours were rooted in civilian and developmental objectives. Recognising the potential of space technology, India sought international cooperation, and the Soviet Union emerged as a crucial partner. As India celebrates its first <keyword id="18542869" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="national-space-day" source="Orion">National Space Day</keyword>, we would be remiss to not acknowledge all that Russia has done for our nation in terms of space exploration. And here are seven examples of the USSR's involvement during <keyword id="19915124" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="ISRO" source="keywords" meta.keywordsubtype="org" meta.entityname="ISRO" meta.hostid="261" meta.entityid="ISRO">ISRO</keyword>'s early years, with multiple instances of assistance. <h2>1. Aryabhata satellite (1975) </h2>The USSR was instrumental in the launch of India's first satellite, Aryabhata, in 1975. While the satellite was designed and developed by Indian scientists, it was launched using a Soviet Kosmos-3M rocket from the Kapustin Yar launch site in Russia. This marked India's first step into space and would not have been possible without Soviet support. <h2>2. Training of ISRO scientists</h2>Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, many Indian space scientists received training in Soviet institutions. This included training in areas like satellite communications, telemetry, and space mission operations. The transfer of technical knowledge was crucial for ISRO as it developed its own capacity to build and operate satellites independently. <h2>3. Bhaskara-I and Bhaskara-II satellites (1979 and 1981)</h2>The USSR launched two Indian Earth observation satellites, Bhaskara-I and Bhaskara-II, which were crucial for remote sensing applications in areas like meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology. Both satellites were launched aboard Soviet rockets, contributing to India's development of satellite-based Earth observation capabilities. <div type="Article" hostid="261" msid="109511778" title="US satellites could face threat from Russia and China&amp;#39;s &amp;#39;unfriendly&amp;#39; space behavior, warn defense analysts" mstype="2" mssubtype="0"></div><h2>4. Launch of apple satellite (1981)</h2>The Ariane Passenger Payload Experiment (APPLE) satellite, India's first experimental communication satellite, was launched in 1981 with Soviet assistance. While the satellite was launched aboard a European Ariane rocket, the Soviet Union provided crucial technical support during its development and also supported telemetry during its early operations. <h2>5. Tracking and telemetry support</h2>The USSR provided technical and infrastructural support to India by helping set up tracking and telemetry stations in India. These facilities were essential for controlling and receiving data from Indian satellites. Soviet technical assistance helped India develop its ground infrastructure for space missions. <h2>6. Interkosmos program (1984) </h2>Under the Soviet Union's Interkosmos program, India participated in a manned spaceflight mission. Rakesh Sharma, an Indian Air Force pilot, was sent into space aboard the Soviet Soyuz T-11 spacecraft, making him the first Indian to travel to space. This was a landmark event for India's space program, showcasing the close collaboration between ISRO and the Soviet space agency. <h2>7. Support for PSLV development</h2>In the early 1990s, during the development of ISRO's Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), the Soviet Union provided guidance and support, particularly in rocket propulsion technology. This collaboration helped ISRO overcome technical hurdles and achieve greater self-reliance in launching satellites. The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of an era in Indo-Soviet space collaboration. However, the legacy of the USSR's contributions to ISRO continues to influence India's space program. Russia, as the successor state of the Soviet Union, maintained friendly ties with India, and space collaboration continued, albeit with a different focus and scale. India’s manned space mission project, Gaganyaan, which aims to send Indian astronauts into space, involves training astronauts in Russia, demonstrating the lasting legacy of <keyword id="22892657" type="General" weightage="20" keywordseo="Indo-Soviet-space-cooperation" source="keywords">Indo-Soviet space cooperation</keyword>. <div type="Article" hostid="261" msid="112569406" title="ISRO targets first Gaganyaan mission launch by December: Chairman" mstype="2" mssubtype="0"></div>

7 times Russia aided India's space program — in chronological order

<keyword id="6355629" type="COMPANY" weightage="20" keywordseo="google">Google</keyword> on Wednesday honoured India's "Satellite Man" and renowned scientist late Udupi Ramachandra Rao with a Doodle showing him with a background of the earth and shooting stars, saying that his "stellar technological advancements continue to be felt across the galaxy". As <keyword id="6364480" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="20" keywordseo="chairman">chairman</keyword> of the <keyword id="116095" type="COMPANY" weightage="20" keywordseo="Indian-Space-Research-Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation</keyword> (ISRO), Rao supervised the 1975 launch of India's first satellite "Aryabhata." Born on March 10, 1932 in Karnataka, Rao passed away in 2017. He was awarded the <keyword id="100507" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="Padma-Bhushan">Padma Bhushan</keyword> in 1976 and Padma Vibhushan in 2017. Rao started his career as a cosmic ray scientist and worked under the father of the Indian space programme, Dr. Vikram Sarabhai at <keyword id="50375" type="COMPANY" weightage="20" keywordseo="Massachusetts-Institute-of-Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</keyword> (MIT) in the US. In association with the NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory group, Rao was the first to establish the continuous nature of the solar wind and its effect on geomagnetism using Mariner 2 observations. Rao's experiments on a number of Pioneer and Explorer spacecraft led to a complete understanding of the solar cosmic-ray phenomena and the electromagnetic state of the interplanetary space. He was also the Chairman of the Governing Council of the Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad and <keyword id="95971" type="COMPANY" weightage="20" keywordseo="Nehru-Planetarium">Nehru Planetarium</keyword> at Bengaluru and chancellor of the Indian Institute for Space Science and Technology (IIST) at Thiruvananthapuram. Rao was inducted into the Satellite Hall of Fame, Washington, in 2013 at a ceremony by the Society of Satellite Professionals International. With this, he became the first Indian to be inducted in that category. He also became the first Indian space scientist to be inducted into the Prestigious "IAF Hall of Fame" at Guadalajara, Mexico. SEE ALSO: <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/stock-market/news/craftsman-automation-has-fixed-a-price-band-of-14881490-a-share-for-its-150-crore-ipo/articleshow/81408729.cms">Auto components maker Craftsman Automation’s ₹150 crore IPO to hit the capital markets next week — price band fixed at ₹1,488–1,490</a> <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/india/news/india-is-using-the-quad-alliance-to-get-help-from-the-us-japan-and-australia-to-match-chinas-covid-19-vaccine-push/articleshow/81408044.cms">India is asking the QUAD for money to boost vaccine production and counter China’s moves on the global stage</a> <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/business/corporates/news/elon-musks-net-worth-has-eroded-60-billion-in-just-two-months-as-teslas-market-cap-falls-35/articleshow/81407453.cms">Elon Musk’s wealth has eroded $60 billion in just two months as Tesla's market cap falls 35%</a>

Google Doodle honours Udupi Ramachandra Rao — India's 'satellite man' and Padma Bhushan winner

With the creation of the Indian National Committee for Space Research (now ISRO) in 1962, India has been an active patron to mankind’s space efforts. From Aryabhata to Chandrayaan-2, India has launched 113 satellites, including the <keyword id="6374683" type="UNKNOWN" weightage="20" keywordseo="First">first</keyword> privately built and funded satellite ExceedSat-1 which was launched from USA, as a part of <keyword id="6355315" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="elon-musk">Elon Musk</keyword>’s Space X project Falcon-9. Up until 2016, India’s space activities have been the exclusive domain of the State, however, the launch of the <keyword id="4835931" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="IRNSS-1H">IRNSS-1H</keyword> in 2017 was the herald of a new era in India’s Space endeavours. The IRNSS-1H marked the beginning of privatisation in this area by being the first Indian satellite, to be designed in collaboration with the private parties. In the following year, the ExseedSat-1 was to become the first privately funded and built satellite launched in collaboration with the private Space X project. Interestingly, up until now, all missions have been conducted for purposes of research, reconnaissance as well as for augmenting communication systems since there was a substantial State monopoly. With the recent announcement of the creation of the Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre or IN-SPACe by the Government of India as part of its atma nirbhar Bharat scheme, which aims at providing a “level playing field” and a supportive regulatory regime to allow Indian private enterprises to grow and carve their own niche in the so-called “fast-growing global space sector”, India has in fact shown an inclination to capitalise on the US strategy of opening up the avidly touted space “sector” to private participation. While the initiative sounds exhilarating and will definitely go a long way in defining India’s image as an emerging global technology powerhouse, it is extremely difficult to fathom why private players, would be willing to readily come forward and invest billions, by confining their activities for research purposes alone, without any expectation of commercial gains or simply, return on their investment. This is so because, matters concerning space and space exploration are subject of a special branch of customary international law, that are mainly centred around five treaties and eleven agreements. The most significant of these is the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies or the Outer Space Treaty (OST) which India ratified in 1967, and which specifically lays down under Article I that outer space and space exploration including that on the moon and other celestial bodies, are to be carried out solely for, and in the interest of all countries, and that they are the province of all mankind. Article II restricts claims of sovereignty and national appropriation by any means whatsoever, Article VI places international responsibility on all activities carried on by governmental or by non-governmental entities, as well as mandates authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party. While there is considerable debate surrounding the applicability of the OST especially Article VI to private parties, since the US Supreme Court ‘s ruling in Medellin v Texas (2008) which held that Article VI is not self-executing in nature, regard must be had to the fact that these are domestic Court rulings and the fact that Space law is part of Customary International law which is affirmed by decades of State practise, cannot be denied, and neither can the fact that it is settled principle of international law that a State cannot, under the excuse of changes in domestic law, including subsequent Court rulings, renege from treaty obligations once ratified. In effect, the OST places strict checks upon the objectives behind exploring this uncharted territory by State and Non-State actors, far less allowing the possibility of even claiming rights of any kind. Moreover, it is no secret that private corporations operate predominantly with the object of individual gains and unless driven by the zeal to serve mankind and share profits with all countries, chances are that the investments made by private parties will have little to nil returns, far less any substantive protection. Also, the marked absence of a designated “Space Police” to patrol and check exploitative behaviour arising out of private activities owing to the presence of Article IV makes any form of substantive protection offered by States to private equity outside the Kármán line, ineffective. These are some of the many challenges apart from concerns regarding contamination of space including <keyword id="943402" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="Space-Debris">space debris</keyword>, that will require extensive deliberations by the Indian Government unless it wants to face a fusillade of criticisms as well as expose itself to the risk of multiple treaty breach claims and possible sanctions from UN as well as its member States. Therefore, unless carefully planned and executed in collaboration with other State actors and under a highly controlled yet a pragmatic regime, that can ensure a balance between the needs of private investment and obligations posed by the OST, India’s space ambitions for the moment appear to be anachronistic and as surrealistic as the flying ambitions of Icarus and Daedalus. (This article was written by Nilanjan Sen, who is an experienced lawyer, specialising in International Law and Arbitration. His views are personal.) SEE ALSO: <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/science/health/news/coovid-vaccine-from-oxford-serum-institute-and-astrazeneca-shows-promising-immune-response/articleshow/77069321.cms">The COVID-19 vaccine from Oxford and AstraZeneca shows 'promising' results in early human trials</a> <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/entertainment/news/dil-bechara-kissing-booth-2-and-other-movies-you-can-watch-on-netflix-amazon-prime-disneyhotstar-this-week/slidelist/77142498.cms">Dil Bechara, Kissing Booth 2 and other movies you can watch on Netflix, Amazon Prime, Disney+Hotstar this week</a> <a href="https://www.businessinsider.in/business/startups/news/work-from-home-effect-these-companies-are-shelling-out-for-employees-power-bills-internet-cost-and-more/articleshow/77139229.cms">WFH effect – These companies are paying for employees' power bills, internet cost and more</a>

OPINION| The fault in our stars: India’s bid at privatizing space

<ul><li>During the bilateral dialogue between <keyword id="6358826" type="LOCATION" weightage="20" keywordseo="Russia">Russia</keyword> and India earlier today, nodal space agencies from both countries signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU).</li><li>The agreement indicates that potential candidates for India’s manned space will be invited to train at ROSCOSMOS in Russia. </li><li>The previous agreement between the ISRO and ROSCOSMOS in 2015 expanded the bilateral cooperation in the exploration and use of <keyword id="523986" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="outer-space">outer space</keyword> for peaceful purposes.</li></ul>India has planned its first <keyword id="1064783" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="human-spaceflight">human spaceflight</keyword> programme, Gaganyaan, for 2022 but it may not have to go at it alone. During the bilateral dialogue between Prime Minister <keyword id="6354477" type="PERSON" weightage="20" keywordseo="Narendra-Modi">Narendra Modi</keyword> and President Vladamir Putin, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) was <a href="https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/30469/IndiaRussia_Joint_Statement_during_visit_of_President_of_Russia_to_India_October_05_2018">signed</a> between the country’s nodal space agencies on the manned space mission. The agreement between the <keyword id="116095" type="ORGANIZATION" weightage="20" keywordseo="Indian-Space-Research-Organisation">Indian Space Research Organisation</keyword> (ISRO) and Russia’s federal space agency, ROSCOSMOS, states that the potential candidates for the mission will have to pass a training course in Russia. Once chosen, their subsequent training could <a href="https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/indian-astronaut-may-travel-to-international-space-station-for-training-report/article25113362.ece">include</a> a trip to the <keyword id="6382020" type="LOCATION" weightage="20" keywordseo="international-space-station">International Space Station</keyword> (ISS). In addition, India’s endogenous navigation system, meant to emulate GPS or the Russian GLONASS, is going to be <a href="https://www.rt.com/news/440381-india-russia-space-contract/">built</a> in the Russian city of Novosibirsk in Siberia. Not the first time India-Russia cooperation in the realm of space exploration isn’t a new phenomenon. India’s lunar mission, Chandrayaan-2, scheduled for January after many delays will be using Russian isotope products. ROSCOSMOS and ISRO signed another MoU back in 2015 on expanding cooperation between the two countries on exploring and using outer space for peaceful purposes. The bilateral agreement opened up collaboration on a number of new fronts like satellite navigation, remote sensing of the Earth, exchange of scientists, and launch vehicle development among others. Experts surmise that space exploration is one of the key pillars of the strategic relationship between the two nations. In fact, the first Indian to have ever been to Space, Rakesh Sharma of the Indian Air Force, got there on onboard the Russian Soyuz T-11 back in 1984. Even the first two Indian satellites, Aryabhata and Bhaskar, were launched into orbit from the <keyword id="832996" type="LOCATION" weightage="20" keywordseo="Baikonur-cosmodrome">Baikonur Cosmodrome</keyword> in the former Soviet Union.

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7 times Russia aided India's space program — in chronological order

Ashmita Gupta

Google Doodle honours Udupi Ramachandra Rao — India's 'satellite man' and Padma Bhushan winner

IANS

OPINION| The fault in our stars: India’s bid at privatizing space

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Russia to help India with its first manned space mission, may train astronauts aboard the ISS

Prabhjote Gill

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