Opium, foot-binding, and braids: Photos reveal what China looked like before the Cultural Revolution
The Qing Dynasty, China's last imperial dynasty, ruled from 1644 to 1912.
The dynasty was originally established by the Manchus, a group of people who mostly occupied Northeast China. Early into their rule, they made great efforts to preserve traditions of the past.
Manchu rulers supported Confucian politics and attitudes and undertook a strong period of collecting and preserving old ideas through art, music, clothing, and literature.
During the early half of the dynasty, the country experienced rapid growth, adopted Confucian methods of leadership, and created the largest production of Chinese history and language books.
Source: Culture Trip
Two major forms of art in the Qing dynasty included porcelain and painting. Artists were typically categorized into three groups: individualists, traditionalists, and professionals.
Of these three categories, the individualists focused on personal works and often made political art, while the traditionalists stuck to reinventing techniques of the past, and professionals served the Manchu court.
One of the dynasty's most notable contributions to music was the development of the Peking opera, which included many regional theater traditions, and often incorporated flute, lute, drums, and wind instruments.
Source: Encyclopedia Britannica
Men during this period were ordered to wear their hair in traditional braids, known as a "queue." When the dynasty was overthrown in 1912, it was encouraged to cut off this hairstyle in an act of political revolution.
Source: Culture Trip
Religion was an important aspect of the Qing Dynasty, and many temples were built for worship around the country.
Source: Ancient History Encyclopedia
The main religion under the Qing Dynasty was Confucianism, but Buddhism and Daoism were also recognized throughout the country.
Source: The Qing Dynasty.com
Traditional clothing for women throughout the Qing Dynasty consisted of long, high-collared robes, and the qipao dress, a garment that has evolved with modern Chinese style.
Head wear was also common during the Qing Dynasty, and court hats were largely distinguished by season. Winter hats were typically comprised of black skull caps with upturned rims, while summer hats were cone-shaped and had bamboo and silk woven within them.
Foot-binding became ubiquitous during the early Qing Dynasty, and any woman who wished to marry was subjected to the process of having her feet bent, broken, and wrapped in order to restrict movement and enhance beauty.
Smoking opium became outlawed by the Qing Dynasty following a series of opium wars between China and the Western world. Despite this ban, Chinese people regularly participated in the recreational use of the drug.
Sources: History.com, Encyclopedia Britannica
From 1850 to 1864, the Qing Dynasty was threatened by the Taiping Rebellion, a movement led by Hong Xiuquan, which killed 20 million people and cost the Qing rulers millions of dollars to end.
Source: Encyclopedia Britannica
Following the Taiping Rebellion, the Qing Dynasty was ruled for roughly 40 years by Empress Dowager Cixi, who is credited with the early stages of modernizing China.
Source: The Guardian
In 1898, Empress Cixi declared war on the west by siding with the Boxer Rebellion, a movement initiated by a secret Chinese society that strongly opposed foreign and Christian influence in China.
Source: History.com, The Guardian
By 1900, thousands of Chinese Christians and foreign nationals were killed in the rebellion. But in 1901, foreign powers defeated the Imperial Army and Qing rule began to significantly weaken.
Sources: Encyclopedia Britannica, The Guardian, History.com
In 1908, Puyi, the Last Emperor of China, took the throne when he was just two years old.
Source: South China Morning Post
In 1912, military revolts overthrew the Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China was formed. Throughout the next three decades, nationalist and communists groups competed for power.
Source: BBC
But in 1949, Mao Zedong announced a victory for the communist party, and The People's Republic of China was born.
Source: BBC
In 1966, Mao launched the "Cultural Revolution," a project to rid the country of "class enemies," western ties, and traditional values that ended with Mao's death 10 years later.
Source: New York Times
The revolution was largely based around class politics. Mao enlisted radical students, known as Red Guards, to target political enemies and wipe out the "four olds" — ideas, customs, cultures, and habits.
Source: The New York Times
During this time, Mao's "Little Red Book" — a collection of over 200 quotations outlining the communist leader's ideology — became practically mandatory to own.
Daniel Leese, a professor of modern Chinese history and politics at the University of Freiburg, told BBC News that owning the book "became a way of surviving."
According to a New York Times report in 1971, the Cultural Revolution saw an end to traditional clothing, celebrations, art, religious practices, and literature.
Source: The New York Times
Red Guards rampaged Beijing and other cities, destroying historical sites and cultural relics, and mass killing enemies of communism. Though the exact number is not clear, over one million are estimated to have died.
Source: The New York Times
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