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<ul class="summary-list"><li>The second moon that Earth has captured in its orbit this month is an asteroid called 2024 PT5.</li><li>Mini-moons like this could be ideal targets for asteroid mining to <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/why-havent-we-been-to-mars-yet-2024-5">send humans deeper into space</a>.</li></ul><p>The <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/second-moon-orbiting-earth-when-why-what-to-know-2024-9 ">second moon that Earth now has for two months</a> may seem like just a fun curiosity, but it's also a sneak peek at a future space industry that could change our global economy.</p><p>An asteroid called 2024 PT5, which normally orbits the sun as part of the Arjuna asteroid belt, was <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/astronomers-photograph-mini-moon-small-object-in-orbit-2020-2">captured in Earth's orbit</a> on Sunday, according to astronomers' projections. Astronomers expect it to spend about 57 days traveling along a horseshoe-shaped path around Earth before rejoining its asteroid belt.</p><p>For those 57 days, the school-bus-sized <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-asteroid-impact-simulation-experts-fear-congress-would-delay-action-2024-6">asteroid</a> will be a "natural satellite" of Earth — basically another, temporary moon.</p><div type="image" title="screenshot of asteroid profile page showing illustration of a bumpy candy-corn-shaped grey asteroid in space with a text box labeling it 2024 PT5 and saying its average estimated diameter is 10.76 m" height="1537" width="2864" msid="113817839" hostid="261" sizebytes="68552"></div><p>That makes it economically intriguing. "<a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/fake-moon-asteroid-orbiting-sun-alongside-earth-astronomers-discover-2023-6">Mini-moons</a>" like this are ideal targets for mining, according to Carlos de la Fuente Marcos, one of the scientists who charted 2024 PT5's path around our planet.</p><p><a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/asteroid-mining-company-earth-startups-raw-materials-cobalt-gold-platinum-2021-3">Asteroid mining</a> could someday help humans travel further out into the cosmos and extend our presence through the solar system. That's because some asteroids contain valuable metals like iron or platinum, as well as water.</p><p><a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-plan-colonize-mars-plan-unrealistic-scientists-explain-2023-10">Elon Musk's vision of a city on Mars</a>, for example, depends on asteroid mining. Temporary moons like 2024 PT5 could be a key stepping stone.</p><p>"Mini-moons are very important for the nascent global <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-helping-private-companies-build-business-moon-make-lunar-billions-2023-6">space economy</a>," Marcos told Business Insider in an email. Because they come so close to Earth and take a sojourn in our orbit, he added, "they are among the objects easier to reach using low-cost missions."</p><h2 id="462c4c69-18b1-4a3f-8e7d-7cb0491d6b39">Asteroids can be worth quintillions</h2><p>Asteroid 2024 PT5 may not be worth much, since scientists think it's made of basalt.</p><p>It's basically "a giant boulder," Teddy Kareta, a planetary scientist at the Lowell Observatory, told Business Insider.</p><p>But some asteroids contain so much metal that they're <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-visit-psyche-asteroid-worth-more-than-entire-world-economy-2023-10">worth more than our entire global economy</a>.</p><p>Take Psyche, for example, an asteroid that NASA is sending a spacecraft to for scientific study, since the agency believes it to be the core of a long-dead planet.</p><p>Psyche's metal-rich makeup — mostly iron and nickel — makes it worth an estimated $100 quintillion if it were here on Earth.</p><div type="image" title="graphic of what the asteroid is thought to look like" height="900" width="1600" msid="113817842" hostid="261" sizebytes="175866"></div><p>Some asteroids even have precious metals like platinum, gold, and cobalt.</p><p>Nobody has mined an asteroid yet, though <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-video-osiris-rex-probe-landing-on-asteroid-kicking-dust-2020-10">NASA punched one</a><strong> </strong>in 2020 to grab scientific samples from it.</p><p>Some startups are trying to figure out how to start mining space rocks, and do it in a cost-effective way. Flying to an asteroid isn't cheap.</p><p>One of them, called <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/asteroid-mining-startup-has-booked-its-first-test-mission-spacex-2022-6">AstroForge, has launched a small probe with SpaceX</a>, though the spacecraft wasn't able to conduct the testing they'd planned, according to <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.space.com/asteroid-mining-astroforge-docking-mission-2025">Space.com</a>. The company is now planning two more missions, which it hopes will culminate in its first landing on a metallic asteroid in 2025.</p><h2 id="e5b0dd4a-bb61-4c4d-a49c-2d9e9a2960a9">Pit stops on the way to Mars</h2><p>Long-distance <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-invest-mars-pulsed-plasma-rocket-shorten-space-time-travel-2024-7">deep-space missions</a>, especially if they're carrying humans and cargo, will have a fuel problem.</p><p>Fuel is heavy, so the less of it you have to load onto a spacecraft the better. On the long flight to Mars or other planets, asteroids could become gas stations.</p><p>That's because <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://academic.oup.com/mnrasl/article/506/1/L6/6298231?login=false">research</a> <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2018JE005584">suggests</a> that many asteroids in Earth's neighborhood are rich in water, which can be mined and split into its elementary components — hydrogen and oxygen, both of which are critical for making rocket fuel.</p><p>Mini-moons are perfect places to start, some scientists think, because of their proximity to Earth but also because of how small they are.</p><p>It takes an immense amount of rocket fuel to escape Earth's powerful gravitational pull. But little asteroids don't have much gravity, making it easy to leapfrog off of them.</p><p>"It only takes a puff of fuel to leave the mini-moon and head back towards Earth," Richard Binzel, a planetary scientist at MIT, previously told <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.livescience.com/space/space-exploration/undiscovered-minimoons-may-orbit-earth-could-they-help-us-become-an-interplanetary-species">Live Science</a>.</p><h2 id="bf8bc193-7a0a-4a09-9d9c-2c6ac7e8d411">Mini-moon missions at the ready</h2><p>One problem with mini-moons is that scientists sometimes don't see them coming until a few weeks before they're captured in our planet's orbit.</p><p>Asteroid 2024 PT5, for example, was first identified as a mini-moon in early September and will only be in Earth's orbit for about 57 days.</p><p>That's a tight timeline for preparing and launching a mining mission. For any asteroid, "you need to learn enough about it to know whether it's worth sending a rocket up," Kareta said.</p><p>Asteroid-mining companies can work around that by having mining spacecraft ready in Earth's orbit, waiting for the right space rock to zoom by, Marcos said.</p><p>"Either if you are thinking about collecting mineral samples for research or starting a space mining venture, mini-moons are your best bet to get your business off the ground," he said.</p>

Mini-moons like the one Earth just captured could be huge business opportunities

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Aivaras Vilutis, 28, grew up in Lithuania and moved to Vilnius, the country's capital, as an adult. </li><li>He shares why he thinks Lithuania was ranked the happiest place on earth for under 30s.</li></ul><p><em>This as-told-to essay is based on a transcribed conversation with a digital marketer Aivaras Vilutis, about being a 28-year-old living in Vilnius, Lithuania. The following has been edited for length and clarity.</em></p><p>I grew up in a small Lithuanian town but moved to the capital, Vilnius, for university. I've lived here most of my adult life.</p><p>Vilnius is a growing city full of opportunities. Compared to smaller Lithuanian cities, it has more jobs and events, and there's a constant influx of new people.</p><p>Recently, Lithuania topped the <a target="_blank" href="https://happiness-report.s3.amazonaws.com/2024/WHR+24_Ch2.pdf">World Happiness Report</a> ranking for under 30s, with the country's young people rating themselves 7.76 out of 10 on the happiness scale. I completely understand why, especially as a <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/why-lithuania-world-happiest-country-for-gen-z-millennials-education-2024-6#:~:text=Lithuania%20was%20ranked%20the%20happiest,in%20tech%20and%20creative%20fields.">young person living in Vilnius</a>.</p><h2 id="703f0fa1-23bb-4ae9-a696-e0a271b0c704"><strong>Young people can study for free in Lithuania</strong></h2><p>When I was in high school, most classmates planned to either learn a trade in college or go to university.</p><p>The state funds higher education in public institutions. As long as you <a target="_blank" href="https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/lithuania/higher-education-funding#:~:text=In%20order%20to%20apply%20for,foreign%20language%20and%20maths%20exams.">pass your national exams</a> during high school, you can apply to a state-funded university with free tuition.</p><p>Although our degrees are specialized, you can still change your mind and switch degrees. I initially studied creativity communication but changed my mind. Because I'd completed less than half of my credits for the degree, I could still switch to a new bachelor's and complete it free of charge. This is the standard practice in <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/best-european-universities-2014-2014-7">Lithuanian universities</a>. Our education system didn't put me in a box. I started and completed a degree in neurophysics.</p><p>If I had completed more than half the credits for my degree, I would have had to pay to start another degree.</p><p>During my four-year neurophysics bachelor's degree, I did several paid internships in science labs and traveled abroad for a semester at NASA, which the university paid for.</p><p>When I did an <a target="_blank" href="https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/internship-programs/nasa-intern-and-fellow-opportunities-for-international-students/">International Internship</a> for NASA in America, people said they appreciated how specialized Lithuanian degrees were, which showed me that our education system is respected internationally.</p><p>I left university without any debt, giving me a strong financial start.</p><h2 id="304b42ae-4389-48f9-bca4-e4a9cb1a8048"><strong>There are lots of job opportunities for young people</strong></h2><p>Lithuania has plenty of <a target="_blank" href="https://www.trumpf.com/en_IN/newsroom/stories/laser-land-lithuania-why-being-small-is-an-advantage/#:~:text=We%27re%20used%20to%20people,the%20Department%20of%20Laser%20Technologies">laser</a>, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.reuters.com/plus/tbd-media-group/global-campaigns/innovation-agency">medical</a>, and <a target="_blank" href="https://balticassist.com/why-you-should-outsource-it-services-to-lithuania/">customer support industries</a> that have been around for years. They're still thriving and generating new job opportunities.</p><p>We're also becoming a major tech hub. Startups and tech companies are booming in cities like <a target="_blank" href="https://techcrunch.com/2023/06/22/lithuania-vilnius-tech-zity-campus/">Vilnius</a>, <a target="_blank" href="https://lithuania.lt/news/business-and-innovations-in-lithuania/vilnius-and-kaunas-among-the-worlds-top-200-cities-for-startups/">Kaunas, and Klaipėda</a>.</p><p>Lithuania is home to <a target="_blank" href="https://www.lrt.lt/en/news-in-english/19/1911785/lithuania-has-its-third-unicorn-minister-says">unicorn companies</a> like Vinted and Nord Security, and the government has started investing in tech development through <a target="_blank" href="https://attraction-project.eu/invest-in-lithuania/">national programs</a>. My first job after university was in tech at a simultaneous language interpretation company. I've also worked in digital advertising.</p><h2 id="b97baa3d-4d14-4e06-9ea8-db4a629fa46e"><strong>Vilnius is an affordable location for young people</strong></h2><p>While working in Vilnius, I've earned more than my parents did in their small town. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.euronews.com/business/2023/11/24/switzerland-and-iceland-highest-payers-across-the-eu-and-eea">Salaries aren't as high</a> as in Western Europe, but they align with the lower cost of living.</p><p>I never worried about money on my digital advertising salary. I ordered takeaway for most dinners and never turned down a social event for money reasons. I've still been able to travel to western countries as well as to cheaper destinations in Eastern Europe.</p><p>When I briefly lived in America and other European countries, the cost of everything seemed really high compared to Vilnius.</p><p>I can find a place to rent on my own in Vilnius for <a target="_blank" href="https://en.aruodas.lt/butu-nuoma-vilniuje-naujamiestyje-sv-stepono-g-isnuomojamas-kvm-ploto-kambario-4-1327510/">600 euros a month</a>. Although I'm not looking to buy a house, my parents bought a two-bedroom apartment eight years ago for around 80,000 euros. House prices are more expensive now, but still cheaper than in other European cities.</p><p>Going out with friends is cheap, making for a great social life. A beer costs five euros, and an average restaurant meal costs 10 euros.</p><p>As a single person, I can spend as little as 40 euros a week on groceries.</p><p>My friends and I attend several concerts or festivals a month because they are either free or very cheap. Nightclub entry is often 10 euros or less.</p><h2 id="96a13632-8d6c-43bf-85ee-5b41697a8631"><strong>The capital city is lively and inclusive</strong></h2><p>Autumn and winter can be very cold in Lithuania. People get excited by the first snowfall of the year, but they also tend to socialize less than they do in the spring and summer. The occasional person experiences seasonal depression when the seasons change, and people go out less, but most appreciate this calmer time.</p><p>In Vilnius, outdoor cafés stretch throughout the Old Town, with people catching up over espresso that is just as good as in Italy.</p><p>The mix of city and nature is perfectly balanced. There are beautiful outdoor areas, and I run in the woods every morning.</p><p>In the summer, my friends and I flock to one of the many lakes scattered around Vilnius.</p><p>The city is home to many young people and is more multicultural than other parts of the country, so it feels more open to minorities.</p><p>As a member of the LGBTQ+ community, I find Vilnius very safe. People from the LGBTQ+ community move to the city because it's a younger, more accepting demographic, and the culture is more vibrant here. Living in a post-Soviet country, it's difficult to change the views of older people.</p><h2 id="77c445d2-6c3e-4e88-bb73-b0bad6523b1b"><strong>I prefer Vilnius to other places I've lived as a young person</strong></h2><p>I love my country. I have lived elsewhere, including in Portugal, America, and Italy, but I always wanted to return to Vilnius. I missed the hipster bars, Lithuanian craft beer, and the forest greenery. It is the happiest place for me as a young person.</p><p>However, outside Vilnius, the situation isn't as good for young people. It's less diverse, and there aren't the same opportunities, so young people often move to bigger cities.</p><p>I don't think people in old age would classify Lithuania as one of the happiest places in the world. They don't want to leave, either, but in regional areas, there are fewer opportunities for them. The generation spent most of their lives in the Soviet era and was not exposed to the same opportunities as we are now.</p><p>I would love Lithuania to become more multicultural. Our happiness ranking for under 30s is great publicity, but I'm not sure it will encourage people to move here.</p><p>You have to live in Vilnius to really understand how welcoming and wonderful the city is. There is a vibe here unlike any other place I have visited or lived.</p>

I live in Lithuania, the happiest place on earth for under 30s. As a very happy 28-year-old, here's what it's like.

<ul class="summary-list"><li>RFK Jr. says under President Trump, he'll advise US water systems to remove fluoride.</li><li>The federal government is not in charge of the US water supply. It's a local thing.</li></ul><p><a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/category/rfk-jr">Robert F. Kennedy Jr.</a>, the man widely expected to become a health leader in President-elect Donald Trump's White House, has promised to lobby to remove fluoride from the American water supply.</p><p>Nearly 63% of the US population has fluoridated water flowing through their taps, according to the <a target="_blank" href="https://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation/php/statistics/2022-water-fluoridation-statistics.html">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC).</p><p>US health experts describe fluoridated water — a voluntary practice for local water districts — as one of modern medicine's <a target="_blank" href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4850bx.htm">greatest public health achievements</a>, up there with the recognition that smoking is bad for you.</p><p>Meanwhile, <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/robert-f-kennedy-jr-views-vaccines-autism-testing-debunked-2023-7">Kennedy</a>, a former environmental lawyer who was instrumental in the fight to clean up the <a target="_blank" href="https://www.riverkeeper.org/blogs/honoring-our-foundation-in-science/">Hudson River in New York</a>, says there's no need to fluoridate drinking water anymore since most toothpaste contains fluoride. </p><p>He's not alone. An important debate over fluoride is gaining fresh steam among scientists and legal experts. Some recent studies suggest more research is still needed on safe fluoride levels for kids. Plus, a federal ruling in California this year questioned the US government's recommended dose.</p><p>While many medical professionals — chiefly dentists — support some level of fluoridation, there is growing<strong> </strong>agreement that we still aren't sure how much fluoride is too much.</p><h2 id="73e9cfea-f185-4392-8a29-deb966cdc1f8"><strong>120 years ago, fluoride was the mystery culprit behind brown teeth in Colorado</strong></h2><div type="image" title="woman with brown teeth" height="2752" width="1912" msid="115231235" hostid="261" sizebytes="398436"></div><p>The reason most Americans have fluoride in their drinking water stretches back more than a century to a <a target="_blank" href="https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/health-info/fluoride/the-story-of-fluoridation">mysterious outbreak</a> scattered across the Midwest and western US.</p><p>In the early 1900s, dentists started noticing that children in specific towns, including Colorado Springs, Colorado; Oakley, Idaho; and Bauxite, Arkansas, were developing hard, chocolate-colored teeth.</p><p>It took more than 20 years, but eventually, researchers discovered that these unusual brown stains were caused by high amounts of naturally occurring fluoride in the drinking water in certain areas of the country.</p><p>They also found that the fluoride — a mineral compound found in rocks and dirt — was strengthening teeth. It was hardening tooth enamel and helping to repair some early-stage tooth decay.</p><p>By 1945, scientists had learned enough about fluoride to harness the technique to prevent cavities for the masses. They proposed microdosing the mineral into the public water supply to give kids just enough fluoride to protect their teeth and help heal dental decay without giving them so much that their teeth would go brown.</p><p>The experiment worked.</p><p>In 1945, Grand Rapids, Michigan, was the first city to purposefully fluoridate its water. In the first 10 years of the program, the rate of cavities in kids decreased by more than <a target="_blank" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1551218/?page=1">60%</a>. Thus, the idea of fluoridated water as a boon for public health was born.</p><h2 id="ffc42276-b971-4331-bd76-9f4c2877d29f"><strong>US water districts decide their own fluoride levels</strong></h2><div type="image" title="tap water" height="4000" width="6000" msid="115231232" hostid="261" sizebytes="655952"></div><p>Kennedy has <a target="_blank" href="https://x.com/RobertKennedyJr/status/1852812012478398923">said</a> he'd aim to convince local authorities nationwide to remove any added fluoride from taps.</p><p>"I think fluoride is on its way out," Kennedy <a target="_blank" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/video/rfk-jr-talks-health-care-agenda-following-trump-win-223717957893">told NBC</a> News the day after the election, adding: "I'm not going to compel anybody to take it out, but I'm going to advise the water districts. I'm going to give them good information about the science, and I think fluoride will disappear."</p><p>The federal government does not control water supplies in the US. That task is up to states and local water systems.</p><p>The US Environmental Protection Agency does mandate a limit for fluoride in tap water: four milligrams per liter. That limit is meant to prevent crippling health issues caused by excess fluoride intake, like a bone-weakening disease called skeletal fluorosis.</p><h2 id="e730cbbb-f6d0-4962-9881-0475436e9095">The US lowered fluoride levels in drinking water in 2015</h2><div type="image" title="crest toothpaste vintage ad w nina simone and daughter" height="4416" width="3531" msid="115231221" hostid="261" sizebytes="896112"></div><p>The amount of fluoride added to a water supply varies not only by city and county but also by the individual water system supplying a given neighborhood.</p><p>For many years, the federal recommendation fluctuated based on location. In warmer climates — where it was assumed that kids consumed more water to stay cool — officials recommended 0.7 milligrams of fluoride per liter. Colder areas were advised to add 1.2 milligrams per liter.</p><p>After reviewing evidence in 2015, the US Public Health Service decided that the discrepancy wasn't needed. The recommendation for fluoridation is now set at 0.7 milligrams per liter nationwide.</p><p>Most major cities in the US hover around the 0.7 figure. Some places naturally have elevated levels of fluoride in their water due to geological factors. In Lordsburg, New Mexico, for example, water samples collected earlier this year had concentrations of fluoride between <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://cityoflordsburg.com/fluoride-mcl-notice-2024/">5.2 and 6.4 milligrams</a> per liter. Authorities there advise that children under 9 years old shouldn't drink tap water.</p><h2 id="c03fabfb-6a1d-488a-8229-718ca0e2727d"><strong>Places with fluoride-free water generally have worse dental health</strong></h2><div type="image" title="toothbrush with paste" height="3209" width="4813" msid="115231228" hostid="261" sizebytes="238252"></div><p>Proponents of ditching fluoride often point to the many European countries that do not fluoridate their water. Those countries are not 100% fluoride-free, though: unlike people in the US, many Europeans consume fluoridated salt.</p><p>Hawaii is the only US state without any fluoride in municipal taps; fluoridated water is only available there on military bases. A <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://health.hawaii.gov/about/files/2013/06/Hawaii-Smiles-Report.pdf">2015 report</a> from Hawaii's health department said the state also has the highest prevalence of tooth decay among 3rd graders in the US.</p><p>"It's obvious; you can see it in the quality of their enamel," Anthony Kim, dental director at the Waimanalo Health Clinic, told the <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.civilbeat.org/2020/02/why-hawaii-continues-to-keep-fluoride-out-of-its-drinking-water/">Honolulu Civil Beat in 2020</a>. "Sadly, especially among the kids."</p><p>Researchers in Canada see the same phenomenon. The rate of cavities detected in Alberta spiked after the city went fluoride-free in 2011, according to a <a target="_blank" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.17269/s41997-024-00858-w">February 2024 study</a>. Calgary did the same and saw <a target="_blank" href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9542152/">similar tooth issues</a> in kids. The city now plans to re-fluoridate its water supply, but cost issues and global supply chain problems post-pandemic have <a target="_blank" href="https://calgary.ctvnews.ca/calgary-s-plan-to-reintroduce-fluoride-into-drinking-water-pushed-back-to-2025-1.6845098">created delays</a>.</p><p>The military supports fluoridation. In 2016, the <a target="_blank" href="https://ilikemyteeth.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/DoD-Fluoridation-Memo-March-2013.pdf">US Department of Defense</a> said dental decay was a "significant" reason military personnel were classified as non-deployable. As such, fluoridated water is now mandated on any military base with more than 3,300 people.</p><p>Rumors have circulated that drinking fluoridated water can lead to bone cancer (osteosarcoma), but long-term studies from both <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://academic.oup.com/ije/article/43/1/224/736028">the UK</a> and <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1877782111001822">US</a> haven't found any credible evidence of higher rates in areas where people drink fluoridated water.</p><h2 id="726f1d49-c5ff-447d-b2cc-6cf2412f9906"><strong>Is there any truth to claims of IQ issues?</strong></h2><div type="image" title="anti fluoride protesters" height="2574" width="3594" msid="115231239" hostid="261" sizebytes="497810"></div><p>On November 2, Kennedy said on X that fluoride is an "industrial waste" that is linked to "IQ loss."</p><p>He linked to a ruling from a federal judge in California in <a target="_blank" href="https://www.cand.uscourts.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/17-cv-2162-Food-_-Water-Watch-Inc.-et-al.-v.-EPA-et-al-Opinion.pdf">October.</a> The judge, appointed by former President Obama, said that while he could not "conclude with certainty" that fluoridated water could reduce the IQ of children, there is evidence that it can be "hazardous at dosages that are far too close to fluoride levels in the drinking water of the United States."</p><p>His ruling came weeks after a headline-grabbing paper in which a group of independent scientists reviewed existing evidence on fluoridation for the <a target="_blank" href="https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/sites/default/files/2024-08/fluoride_final_508.pdf">US National Toxicology Program</a>. Their review concluded that some studies of fluoride consumption have found links between higher fluoride water levels and lower IQs in kids.</p><p>There are a couple of big caveats to keep in mind. First, those studies were conducted in other countries, including Canada, China, India, Iran, Pakistan, and Mexico, not the US.</p><p>Second, the association with lower IQs was only apparent when children were drinking water loaded with fluoride, at more than 1.5 milligrams per liter. That's double what's recommended in the US and 50% more fluoride than what was first used in Grand Rapids in 1945.</p><p>"More studies are needed to fully understand the potential for lower fluoride exposure to affect children's IQ," the experts said.</p><p>Those new studies are starting to trickle out. Fluoride and aluminum researcher Ashley Malin, an assistant professor of epidemiology at the University of Florida, recently found <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38767917/">a potential link</a> between a woman's fluoride levels during pregnancy and neurobehavioral problems in her toddler three years later.</p><p>"At this point, I would advise that pregnant women reduce their fluoride intake," Malin told Business Insider.</p><p>Malin brushes her teeth without fluoride, drinks filtered water (using a reverse osmosis water purifier or buying bottled water), and says that the most fluoride she consumes is probably from the black chai tea she occasionally drinks.</p><h2 id="5b5f129c-cdf6-4dba-a89c-6887474b296d"><strong>Settling on the right dose</strong></h2><div type="image" title="retro photo of kid brushing teeth" height="3000" width="2487" msid="115231240" hostid="261" sizebytes="496682"></div><p>It's hard to tease out <a target="_blank" href="https://www.cochrane.org/CD010856/ORAL_does-adding-fluoride-water-supplies-prevent-tooth-decay">exactly how beneficial fluoridated water is</a> for preventing cavities, in part because fluoridating water isn't the only way that tooth care has improved dramatically since the 1940s. (The level of fluoride in many toothpastes is much higher than what's in the water.)</p><p>The California ruling last month didn't get prescriptive about what the EPA should do about all this uncertainty. It only recommended some kind of "regulatory action" on fluoride.</p><p>"It should be noted that this finding does not conclude with certainty that fluoridated water is injurious to public health," the verdict read.</p><p>A federal judge wants the EPA to better answer now whether 0.7 milligrams per liter of fluoride is safe enough.</p><p>The EPA has said in the past that reviewing their fluoride numbers is a "low priority" item for the agency. Public health experts and dentists generally agree that <a target="_blank" href="https://www.nidcr.nih.gov/news-events/nidcr-news/2024/big-hopes-little-teeth">fluoridated tap water</a> is a safe, effortless, and equitable way to ensure people get enough fluoride to prevent most childhood cavities.</p><p>However, scientists haven't quite settled on the optimal fluoride level in tap water to maintain healthy teeth yet.</p>

A brief history of America's love affair with fluoridated water — and why it's now up for debate

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Cruise giants Royal Caribbean, Carnival, Norwegian, and MSC each own <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/why-ultra-luxury-all-inclusive-cruises-are-worth-the-cost-2024-7">ultra-luxury cruise lines</a>.</li><li>I've been on their brands' Silversea, Seabourn, Regent Seven Seas, and Explora's ships.</li></ul><p>Almost every cruise ship has a pool, buffet, and casino.</p><p>Only a few flex complimentary caviar and $600-a-day prices.</p><p>Industry giants Royal Caribbean, Norwegian, Carnival, and MSC flaunt <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/royal-caribbean-icon-of-the-seas-cruise-ship-review-photos-2024-2">giant amusement park-like ships</a>. But if you don't have kids — or prefer quieter vacations — the four companies also operate smaller ultra-luxury brands, replacing onboard rollercoasters with afternoon tea and Champagne.</p><p>I've been on the ships of their four high-end counterparts: Silversea, Regent Seven Seas, Seabourn, and Explora. Here's what you should know about each and how they compare, from dining to cabins.</p><h2 id="ac4ace25-fdc1-44db-9e7f-7c06392ce696"><strong>Silversea's Silver Ray: A modern resort with local cuisines</strong></h2><div type="image" title="pool deck of Silversea's Silver Ray cruise ship" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992472" hostid="261" sizebytes="271920"></div><p>Royal Caribbean Group's <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/silversea-new-ultra-luxury-silver-ray-cruise-ship-amenities-2024-6">Silversea</a> operates 12 ocean and expedition vessels. It launched its newest ship, Silver Ray, in June.</p><p>The 728-guest ship looks more like a modern luxury hotel than a traditional cruise. Think neutral interiors with contemporary pops of color, glass elevators with ocean views, and an Instagram-worthy pool deck.</p><div type="image" title="empty alfresco seating near fake orange tree on Silversea Silver Ray" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992452" hostid="261" sizebytes="269344"></div><p>Silversea's SALT — "sea land and taste" — program brings the itinerary's regional cuisines into the cruising experience. On <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/silversea-food-dining-ultra-luxury-cruise-ship-silversea-silver-ray-2024-7">Silver Ray</a>, this includes cooking classes, a restaurant and bar with rotating menus, and food-focused excursions.</p><p>If you're not craving local bites, other complimentary restaurants include American, Italian, grill-your-own meat, and jazz-and-tapas options.</p><div type="image" title="sushi chefs at Kaiseki on  Silversea's Silver Ray cruise ship" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992450" hostid="261" sizebytes="449590"></div><p>Not all meals are complimentary — the French, Japanese, and SALT Chef's Table dinners are upcharged starting at $80 per person. (At least the eight bars and lounges are free.)</p><p>You can spend your days sipping wine at the secret library, attending a guest lecture, or simmering in the sauna.</p><p>At night, enjoy cover bands and guest entertainers.</p><div type="image" title="sauna on Silversea's Silver Ray cruise ship" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992459" hostid="261" sizebytes="277172"></div><p>As for accommodations, <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/silversea-new-ultra-luxury-cruise-ship-suite-review-2024-6">Silver Ray's 364 suites</a> range up to 1,324 square feet. Even the smallest 357-square-foot options have marble bathrooms, walk-in closets, pillow menus, and butlers.</p><p>In 2025, the ship will sail around South America, the Mediterranean, and the Caribbean. The cheapest seven-night itinerary from Callao, Peru, to Valparaiso, Chile, starts at $4,300 per person.</p><p>The fare includes WiFi, alcohol, and access to the spa. Guests can opt for a pricier package with flights and excursions.</p><h2 id="78d363df-e8d1-4b17-be56-5b609b5bfbe9"><strong>Regent Seven Seas' Seven Seas Grandeur: Classic luxury</strong></h2><div type="image" title="seven seas grandeur pool deck" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992477" hostid="261" sizebytes="223904"></div><p>Norwegian Cruise Line Holdings' <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/norwegian-regent-seven-seas-cruise-ships-compared-review-2024-1">Regent Seven Seas</a> launched its sixth vessel in 2023.</p><p>The 744-guest <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/oceania-and-regent-seven-seas-cruise-ships-compared-2024-1">Seven Seas Grandeur</a> has a classic luxury feel, complete with a traditional pool deck and $6 million worth of art, including a custom Fabergé egg.</p><div type="image" title="Regent Seven Seas Cruises Grandeur's atrium" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992476" hostid="261" sizebytes="496508"></div><p>It's a great option for travelers who enjoy the finest foods. And unlike Silver Ray, none of the seven restaurants are upcharged.</p><p>Truffles, caviar, lobster, or foie gras are on almost every menu, including those of pan-Asian, French, and American steakhouse venues.</p><p>Head to the Italian outpost for risotto with mushrooms. If you're pickier, there's a restaurant with a customizable menu.</p><div type="image" title="pan-asian food on a table at Regent Seven Seas Cruises Grandeur's Pacific rim" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992478" hostid="261" sizebytes="524196"></div><p>During the day, travelers can have afternoon tea at one of the four bars and lounges, break a sweat at the bocce court, or pay for a cooking class.</p><p>In the evening, live music and song-and-dance shows entertain guests.</p><p>Afterward, enjoy a nightcap on your balcony. <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/ultra-luxury-cruise-stateroom-not-favorite-regent-seven-seas-review-2023-12">Grandeur's 373 cabins</a> — ranging from 307 to 4,443 square feet — all have balconies, walk-in closets, L'Occitane toiletries, and mini-bars.</p><div type="image" title="Regent Seven Seas Cruises Grandeur's concierge suite" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992467" hostid="261" sizebytes="243704"></div><p>The ship will spend 2025 in the Caribbean, Mediterranean, and Europe. A seven-night roundtrip voyage from Miami to Mexico and Central America starts at $4,300 per person.</p><p>Excursions, alcohol, spa facilities, and WiFi are included. Like its rival, <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/regent-seven-seas-cruise-luxury-best-part-see-inside-2024-1">Regent Seven Seas' all-inclusive upgrade</a> includes flights, transfers, and chauffeur credit.</p><h2 id="7f219800-6288-4607-bd35-9f47e9ee73b5"><strong>Explora Journeys' Explora I: An elegant ship with high-end shopping</strong></h2><div type="image" title="pool in Explora Journeys' Explora I cruise ship" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992464" hostid="261" sizebytes="294942"></div><p>European MSC Group-backed Explora Journeys launched in 2023 with <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/msc-new-luxury-cruise-ship-review-2023-10">Explora I</a>.</p><p>Its nascence and international background don't make it an unusual contender. Instead, the 922-guest vessel mixes Seven Seas Grandeur's traditional layout with Silver Ray's contemporary feel.</p><p>The decor is elegant, the<strong> </strong>spa serves crystal-infused water,<strong> </strong>and the shops (specifically the Rolex store) are pricey. At 814 feet long, it's also the largest ship on this list.</p><div type="image" title="outdoor pool on Explora Journeys' Explora I cruise ship" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992469" hostid="261" sizebytes="392656"></div><p>Like Seven Seas Grandeur, <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/explora-i-ocean-terrace-stateroom-review-2023-10">Explora I's guests</a> can pay for a cooking class. If you'd rather not work for your food, it also has six restaurants, including pan-Asian and European steakhouse options.</p><p>Dine at the French restaurant for a tuna tataki tart, or head to the Mediterranean eatery for a plate of grilled octopus.</p><p>Avoid the Italian if you're on a tight budget — the seven courses cost an additional $190 per person.</p><div type="image" title="Seafood in Explora I buffett" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992474" hostid="261" sizebytes="160322"></div><p>Travelers can spend sea days sipping on cappuccinos and sunbathing around the five pools.</p><p>At night, they can mingle at the Lobby Bar, one of 12 bars and lounges. The overhead Steinway piano provides the perfect melodic backdrop for cocktails and conversations.</p><div type="image" title="lobby bar in Explora Journeys' Explora I cruise ship" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992475" hostid="261" sizebytes="433818"></div><p>Explora I has 461 cabins from 377 to 3,014 square feet. Expect heated bathroom floors, butlers, walk-in closets, and Dyson hairdryers.</p><p>The ship is spending 2025 in the Caribbean and Europe. A seven-night roundtrip Miami voyage to the Caribbean and Mexico starts at $3,225 per person.</p><p>Drinks, spa access, and WiFi are complimentary.</p><h2 id="7cbc86f5-3ebe-435b-b3c0-8f03acdff25a"><strong>Seabourn's Seabourn Quest: A dated ship with exciting itineraries</strong></h2><div type="image" title="empty pool deck of Seabourn Quest" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992479" hostid="261" sizebytes="209936"></div><p>Carnival Corp's Seabourn operates expedition and ocean vessels. The 13-year-old, 458-guest <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/carnival-ultra-luxury-seabourn-quest-cruise-ship-photos-tour-2024-10">Seabourn Quest</a> is its second-oldest, as indicated by the low ceilings, passé furniture, and traditional layout.</p><p>Thankfully, it doesn't compromise on dining — all eight food and beverage venues are complimentary, from sushi and cocktails in the Club lounge to porterhouse steaks at the Mediterranean restaurant.</p><p>Pick at a seared fish filet in the main dining room. Or, indulge in a pre-bedtime caviar snack.</p><div type="image" title="two steaks on a dinner table on Seabourn Quest's Solis" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992462" hostid="261" sizebytes="268638"></div><p>During the day, travelers can take a dip off the ship's marina, attend a guest lecture, or hit the putting green. At night, they can catch live music or try a new board game.</p><p>Seabourn Quest's 229 cabins range from 295 to 1,182 square feet and include walk-in closets and personalized in-suite bars. Unfortunately, a handful don't have balconies.</p><div type="image" title="putting green and shuffleboard" height="1725" width="2300" msid="114992480" hostid="261" sizebytes="409318"></div><p>Forget the Caribbean and Europe — Seabourn Quest is spending 2025 in Alaska, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. It's not scheduled for a seven-night itinerary, but the cheapest six-night Alaska and Canadian voyage starts at $4,000 per person.</p>

I've been on 4 ultra-luxury cruises — here's how they compare and how to pick the best ship for you

<ul class="summary-list"><li><strong>Ecolab manages water-purification and water-treatment systems.</strong></li><li><strong>The company, which has been around for a century, uses AI to inform new projects.</strong></li></ul><p><em>For "CXO AI Playbook," Business Insider takes a look at mini case studies about AI adoption across industries, company sizes, and technology DNA. We've asked each of the featured companies to tell us about the problems they're trying to solve with AI, who's making these decisions internally, and their vision for using AI in the future.</em></p><p>Ecolab, a company headquartered in St. Paul, Minnesota, focusing on water management, hygiene, and infection prevention, works across 40 industries. Tens of thousands of its associates help optimize water use and maintain safe water environments for millions of customers in more than 170 countries.</p><h2 id="ec04abf8-6dc5-4015-93f4-02f9ad5ed95c"><strong>Situation analysis: What problem was the company trying to solve?</strong></h2><p>Kevin Doyle, Ecolab's chief digital officer, told Business Insider that while Ecolab has deep institutional knowledge, digging into it to help clients can sometimes be tricky. "We've got water expertise that we've had for 100 years and have been out working with clients and customers assessing those operations and making recommendations" based on that history, he said.</p><div type="image" title="Headshot of Kevin Doyle" height="545" width="726" msid="111691289" hostid="261" sizebytes="20730"></div><p>Ecolab's business involves assessing a client's operations to understand their needs and challenges. Those findings are then used to develop plans to drive water and energy savings through tailored programs that include science-based chemistry, digital insights, and extensive expertise.</p><p>Ecolab's associates — generally <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/what-are-pfas-forever-chemicals-health-impacts-products-exposure-2023-3">chemical</a> engineers — carry out these assessments and make recommendations to customers. Doyle said decades-old recommendations could be valuable for clients' current decision-making, but only if the company has access to them.</p><p>"That could have been lost on that person's hard drive or in that person's mind only," he said. "What's now happening is it's documented in a repository of data that we're then able to serve up" to associates using generative AI.</p><h2 id="b28f8d8c-b4ff-4122-b259-67f1979cd242"><strong>Key staff and partners</strong></h2><p>Ecolab's AI acceleration lab initiated the project, which is now used by thousands of employees working directly with customers and <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/sc/how-trendsetters-are-transforming-data-driven-customer-experiences">uploading data to the system</a>. Doyle said those field associates also use generative AI to analyze information stored in the company's existing filing systems.</p><h2 id="813a5456-497d-4311-81bb-3993626c299c"><strong>AI in action</strong></h2><p>The system started with a mobile application and a recommendation screen, and a chatbot was added later, Doyle said. "We could see either a recommendation based on best practices or what was contained in a knowledge repository, or somebody could ask a question, like, 'I'm trying to install water meters on this size pipe, what type of meter should I order?'" he said.</p><p><a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/ways-advertisers-are-using-generative-ai-for-creative-campaigns-2024-5">Adopting generative AI</a> means Ecolab's representatives can harness information and insights from clients around the world.</p><p>"Maybe it's another person in southeast Iowa who goes into a similar-type plant, they have a similar customer with similar characteristics," he said. "It will make a recommendation based on the AI that will say, 'You could implement these programs and projects,' or 'Your peers have done this to create value: Is it something that's interesting to you?'"</p><h2 id="a49ad446-6478-4f18-8326-fed13dc8d777"><strong>Did it work, and how did leaders know?</strong></h2><p>Doyle said Ecolab had seen benefits from integrating generative AI in customer outreach, advisory, and briefing processes.</p><p>"It has enabled those out in the field to make decisions and ensures their on-the-ground insights are not lost within the organization," he said.</p><p>"We've seen increases already in the early stages of that program in the hundreds of millions of dollars of value creation and value potential," he added.</p><p>Doyle said AI will help the company make quicker decisions, which means "our existing team will be able to serve more customers and deliver greater value."</p><h2 id="4bd60b0e-3d0d-452d-9e84-d6c00c2cbeee"><strong>What's next?</strong></h2><p>Doyle said Ecolab's AI acceleration lab was testing further ways to use generative AI. "We're trying to apply that to even broader knowledge sets and certainly across all of our businesses," he said, referring to firms within the 40 industries Ecolab serves. Those broader knowledge sets include the nuanced processes in each industry, such as an associate's experience with supporting cooling water systems or identifying product quality issues.</p><p>By applying AI to new data, Doyle said they're able to take in more information to "get our people to the most impactful locations, whether that's to create value through a project or to fix something that's not operating as it should and causing other problems."</p><p><em>We want to hear from you. If you are interested in sharing your company's AI journey, email </em><a target="_blank" href="mailto:jhood@businessinsider.com"><em>jhood@businessinsider.com</em></a><em>.</em></p>

How one water-management company is using AI to unlock insights from its 100-year past

<ul class="summary-list"><li>NASA approved the $19.5 million Landolt Space Mission to send an artificial star into Earth's orbit.</li><li>It will be the first astronomical tool of its kind that could revolutionize the way we study space.</li></ul><p>Astronomers typically deal with the very, very large — <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/blueprints-giant-telescopes-moon-nasa-astronomers-2024-2">big telescopes</a>, giant galaxies, and <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/rare-cosmic-explosion-visible-naked-eye-nasa-space-2024-3">massive exploding stars</a>.</p><p>But one of the more <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-james-webb-space-telescope-best-images-from-first-year-2022-12">revolutionary astronomy tools</a> of the decade is a mini satellite about the size of a bread box. The satellite will act as an artificial star for <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/astronomers-discover-fastest-runaway-stars-in-milky-way-galaxy-2023-6">astronomers to observe from the ground,</a> allowing them to more accurately measure a space object's brightness and better understand some of the biggest mysteries in our universe, like dark energy.</p><p>NASA recently approved the $19.5 million Landolt Space Mission to launch the mini satellite into Earth's orbit.</p><p>"This is some really awesome science that NASA is supporting," Tyler Richey-Yowell, a postdoctoral researcher at Lowell Observatory who studies stellar astronomy and exoplanets, told Business Insider. "It's something that's going to help out all astronomers."</p><h2 id="850dab02-cefa-4f6a-b198-ab2890924c14">A revolutionary new tool for astronomers</h2><div type="image" title="illustration of Landalt satellite firing lasers at an observatory on Earth" height="1030" width="2048" msid="111091999" hostid="261"></div><p>The mini satellite, called <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/planet-mars-image-nasa-marco-cubesat-2018-10">CubeSat</a>, is designed to orbit Earth from 22,236 miles away. At that distance, its speed will match Earth's spin so the satellite will appear fixed in the night sky and be an easy target for telescopes to track.</p><p>You won't be able to see it with the naked eye. But to telescopes, it'll look like a star. The mission is scheduled to launch in 2029. It will be the first tool of its kind.</p><p>"This is really new for us to have some sort of artificial star, quote, unquote, up there that we can go and rely on and use," Richey-Yowell told BI.</p><p>What makes this "<a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/china-fusion-artificial-star-hotter-sun-2016-2">artificial star</a>" better than a real one is that astronomers will know exactly how much light it's emitting.</p><p>The CubeSat, named Landolt for the late astronomer Arlo Landolt, will <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-laser-beam-message-10-million-miles-away-streaming-mars-2023-11">fire lasers</a> with a specific number of light particles, or photons, which astronomers can use to calibrate their telescopes for measuring light.</p><p>This can help eliminate a lot of the guesswork that astronomers do now when using real stars to calibrate their instruments.</p><p>The problem is that there's no way of knowing exactly how much light real stars emit, because we can't send a probe to one to accurately measure its brightness, Richey-Yowell said. Moreover, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/stratosphere-shrinking-greenhouse-gas-emissions-climate-change-2021-5">Earth's atmosphere</a> absorbs a lot of light from space, which can also affect astronomers' calibrations.</p><p>"That's why this Landolt mission is so important," Richey-Yowell said, adding that "if we send up a mission like this one where we know exactly how many photons, how much light per second, is coming from this CubeSat," then it could be used to compare and more precisely measure the light from other objects, like real stars.</p><p><a target="_blank" href="https://www.livescience.com/space/astronomy/nasa-will-put-a-new-star-in-the-sky-by-the-end-of-the-decade-in-1st-of-its-kind-mission">Live Science reported</a> that the mission is expected to help astronomers measure the light emitted from stars with 10 times the accuracy of current estimates.</p><p>It's like if you were given a 1,000-piece puzzle with only half the pieces and then someone gifted you a few hundred more pieces. Landolt can help astronomers catch minute details they've otherwise been missing in the data.</p><h2 id="497f43a9-311c-42dd-b3e3-da5a0877850f">How Landolt could revolutionize astronomy</h2><div type="image" title="Illustration of an exoplanet floating in space surrounded by clouds of white and blue cosmic gas and dust" height="1322" width="2266" msid="111091996" hostid="261"></div><p>"All of our astronomy is <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/flare-billion-times-sun-baffles-scientists-2023-11">based on light</a>, and so we really need to know how much light we are actually receiving," Richey-Yowell said.</p><p>You can learn a lot from a ray of light: a star's temperature, its mass, the types of exoplanets orbiting it and whether they could harbor life.</p><p>For example, knowing how hot a host star is can tell you how far an exoplanet must be in order to sustain liquid water on its surface, Richey-Yowell said. Water is a main ingredient of life as we know it and a key feature astrobiologists search for when scoping out potential planets that could harbor life.</p><p>Finding more <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/astronomers-find-earth-like-planet-sun-like-star-2020-6">Earth-like planets</a> is just the beginning. Astronomers can also use Landolt to measure light from distant exploding stars, called supernovae, that can help calculate the expansion rate of the universe.</p><p>Right now, cosmologists studying the universe's expansion face a <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/cosmic-glitch-makes-scientists-rethink-einstein-greatest-theory-2024-5">huge challenge</a>: They can't settle on a single value for the expansion rate. Some methods lead to one value, while others lead to a slightly different one. This conundrum could be key to figuring out some of the biggest mysteries of the universe, like understanding the invisible force ripping our universe apart that we call <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/largest-cosmic-map-new-understanding-dark-energy-universe-expansion-einstein-2024-4">dark energy</a>.</p><p>"So really anything from small, tiny planets to the whole scale of the universe relies on our understanding of stars and how bright they are and what kind of light they're emitting," Richey-Yowell said. "I really do think it will be revolutionary for astronomy."</p>

NASA is putting an 'artificial star' in orbit around Earth

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Many experts have attempted to <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/great-lakes-brewing-companys-sumerian-beer-2013-6">recreate ancient beer</a> using recipes that are thousands of years old.</li><li>Max Miller of 'Tasting History' brewed a 3,800-year-old Sumerian beer based on a hymn.</li></ul><p>A Utah man recently spent months collecting ingredients and <a target="_blank" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/this-man-brewed-beer-using-3000-year-old-yeast-and-a-recipe-from-an-ancient-egyptian-papyrus-180984576/">brewing</a> beer with an ancient strain of yeast to recreate a 3,000-year-old beer. But if you don't have the time to source Yemeni sidr honey, frankincense, and Egyptian balsam fruit, you can still get an idea of what ancient beer tasted like with a little help from Max Miller, the creator of the "<a target="_blank" href="https://www.tastinghistory.com/recipes/sumerianbeer">Tasting History</a>" series on YouTube.</p><p>Last year, Miller made a video showing how he brewed a 3,800-year-old Sumerian beer from a region of Mesopotamia. While he often follows <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/scientists-recreate-170-year-old-beer-2014-10">historical recipes</a>, for the ancient beverage he had to rely on a hymn about a brewer. In the video, he compared it to trying to bake a dessert based on the "Patty Cake" nursery rhyme.</p><p>While that meant there was a lot of guessing involved, there was less chance of getting it wrong.</p><p>"If you just follow the basic steps, you'll end up with something that might be correct," Miller told Business Insider.</p><h2 id="fa9c5c1a-bbda-4c73-9599-0477f75d50ad">The basic ingredients for an ancient beer</h2><div type="image" title="&quot;Tasting History&quot; star Max Miller in a blue apron behind a counter with a plate of food on it" height="1500" width="1396" msid="111788658" hostid="261" sizebytes="103522"></div><p>People have been making beer in various forms for <a target="_blank" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/interactive/2023/beer-history-types-timeline/">thousands of years</a>, all over the world. Archaeologists <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/archaeologists-may-have-unearthed-world-s-oldest-brewery">think</a> they may have even found a 13,000-year-old brewery in Israel.</p><p>Since Miller isn't an expert in <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/ancient-chinese-beer-recipe-2016-5">ancient beer</a>, he relied on archaeologist Tate Paulette's <a target="_blank" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nDva-HQmLUo">research</a> to figure out how to create a recipe from the "Hymn to Ninkasi," which <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://phys.org/news/2012-01-fermented-cereal-beverage-sumerians-beer.html">dates</a> to around 1,800 BCE, making it 3,800 years old.</p><p>Paulette found that most of the written descriptions and brewers' receipts included the same basic ingredients: malted barley, bappir, a mix of raw and roasted grains, date syrup, and aromatics. No one knows for sure what bappir is, but Paulette thinks it refers to a dried cake of something similar to a sourdough starter.</p><p>To make his version, Miller used water, barley, barley flour, a sourdough starter, coriander, cardamom, date syrup, and brewer's yeast. </p><p>Here are his instructions:</p><ul><li><strong>Day 1:</strong> Cover a cup of barley in water and leave it to soak.</li><li><strong>Day 2:</strong> For the bappir, mix 1.5 cups of barley flour with 1.5 cups of sourdough starter and 0.5 cups of water. Knead the dough on a clean surface for five minutes. Put the dough in a clean bowl then cover it it with a towel for a day so it can rise.</li><li>Strain the barley from day one, and put it in cheesecloth. Let the cheesecloth hang suspended for two to three days to allow it to sprout. (Miller used the handle from a kitchen cabinet.) Spray the cheesecloth a few times a day so it doesn't dry out.</li><li><strong>Day 3:</strong> Use the dough from day two to make a flat, round loaf. Leave it uncovered to dry for a day.</li><li><strong>Day 4:</strong> Bake the dried loaf at 300°F for no more than 10 minutes on a baking sheet with parchment paper.</li><li>Set the oven to 200°F, and arrange the sprouted barley on an unlined baking sheet. Bake for two to three hours, then leave them uncovered to dry out.</li><li><strong>Day 5: </strong>Turn the barley into powder with a mortar and pestle or a food processor. Cover the crushed barley with water and soak it for two hours.</li><li>Crumble the dried loaf into pieces. It needs to dry for longer than two hours.</li><li>Put the crumbled loaf in a large jar with the soaked barley and its liquid. Add in aromatics and 0.5 cups of date syrup.</li><li>Pour in a gallon of water and stir. Cover the jug with cheesecloth and let it sit in a dark place for two to three days.</li><li><strong>Day 7 or 8:</strong> Strain the beer through a sieve. The beer is ready to serve but will start to go bad after two days.</li></ul><p>Exactly what Mesopotamian brewers used for aromatics is another mystery, but coriander, cardamom, fennel, and cumin are all possibilities, as are juniper berries, honey, figs, plums, and other fruits, herbs, and spices.</p><p>Mixing and matching those options will result in different outcomes. "Just the smallest change in what you're adding into it can really affect the flavor quite a bit," Miller said.</p><p>When you add the ingredients can impact its strength, too. Putting date syrup in early in the process will up the alcohol content, while adding it later will just make the end result sweeter. Some experts aren't sure if ancient beer was even alcoholic at all.</p><p>However strong they were, <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/peru-drug-laced-beers-helped-ancient-empire-prosper-wari-2022-1">ancient brews</a> came in several varieties. Texts from around 2,500 BCE describe golden, dark, sweet, dark red, and strained beers.</p><h2 id="48205eb2-0d5d-4770-8249-cff472700845">Ancient beer is different from today's ales</h2><p>Don't expect your hymn-inspired homebrew to resemble anything you can buy at the store. Beers based on ancient recipes generally end up cloudy and chunky. That's pretty authentic to how it would have been <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/archaeologists-find-remnants-5000-year-old-tavern-iraq-beer-recipe-2023-2">thousands of years ago</a>.</p><p>"It is so different from what we think of as beer today," Miller said. "It's <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/oldest-known-drinking-straws-allowed-ancients-to-share-communal-beer-2022-1">drunk through a straw</a>, for goodness sake." That was likely to help avoid some of the clumps of grain or cake.</p><p>Developments in <a target="_blank" href="https://pubsapp.acs.org/subscribe/archive/tcaw/10/i12/html/12chemchron.html">microbiology</a> and technology like <a target="_blank" href="https://pubsapp.acs.org/subscribe/archive/tcaw/10/i12/html/12chemchron.html">thermometers</a> changed brewing techniques over the last few centuries. Some ingredients have changed, too, like the types of yeast used. There's also no evidence that ancient beer makers used hops, which is a ubiquitous ingredient today.</p><p>Miller's main tip is to just try brewing your own version if you're curious because there's really no wrong way to do it. "Just be patient," he said, "because these older dishes, they do take more time. But they're fun, and it's a fun summer project."</p>

A YouTuber recreated a recipe for 3,800-year-old beer. Here's how you can do it too.

<ul class="summary-list"><li><a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/earth-axis-shifted-melting-ice-climate-change-2021-4">Polar ice melt driven by climate change</a> is affecting Earth's rotation, according to new research.</li><li>We may have to adjust timekeeping by "skipping" a second in 2029.</li></ul><p>The climate crisis has gone so far that it's <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/groundwater-pumping-causes-earth-rotational-pole-to-shift-study-finds-2023-7">altering the shape and spin of our planet</a>, and changing our experience of time itself, according to a new <a target="_blank" href="https://affiliate.insider.com?h=6e0ebadf62e8f47a67cc7282306158a72bdd5063f2fb3125a3504cbcc1d89ccf&amp;postID=6605b6fa669ae113e1c59c9b&amp;postSlug=human-activities-change-earth-spin-time-keeping-2024-3&amp;site=bi&amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41586-024-07170-0.epdf%3Fsharing_token%3Dn1K3Lv83uuFdqGIlB55OhNRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0M8eI6W1yLpWHEpE-RIkTCyYE2WIbRIkp2z3i1LfYhEU3YrU-85lxnPetCiUSDS5sZh2Yqx8exdxhiHVjsNg32gYMg9UFjTwdCeHAJyzUAmdpjxRja_Ev5m6jX89sSeTy-5GMAG9cTExYZgXc-LYQwOViaP1wIrgTvdQ3Q23voktQ%253D%253D%26tracking_referrer%3Dwww.cnn.com">study</a> published in the journal Nature on Wednesday.</p><p>"Enough ice has melted to move sea level enough that we can actually see the rate of the <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/earth-spinning-around-axis-more-quickly-2021-1">Earth's rotation</a> has been affected," Duncan Agnew, a geophysicist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and author of the study, told <a target="_blank" href="https://affiliate.insider.com?h=195d94915c7be3972827c534262e8b53a0fc3dd3efb23944e2d14f69350381c6&amp;postID=6605b6fa669ae113e1c59c9b&amp;postSlug=human-activities-change-earth-spin-time-keeping-2024-3&amp;site=bi&amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fd41586-024-00932-w">Nature</a>.</p><div type="image" title="3D Render of Planet Earth in blue-black space with sun beams peeking over the top" height="1500" width="3167" msid="108882044" hostid="261" sizebytes="111358"></div><p>Don't worry — this change in Earth's rotation <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/what-if-earth-stopped-spinning">won't be catastrophic</a>. However, it does mean that we'll have to adjust our time keeping, which may be a problem for much of the computing we rely on.</p><h2>Ice melt could delay the dreaded negative leap second</h2><p>Humans track time in seconds, minutes, and hours, and these measurements are dictated by Earth's rotation on its axis and the sun's position in the sky — what's called the solar timescale.</p><p><a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/earth-rotation-slowing-helped-bacteria-produce-oxygen-2021-8">But the solar timescale is not very precise because the planet's spin has never been constant</a> — it changes based on how fluids both above and below the crust move.</p><p>Therefore, humans invented a more precise way of time keeping with atomic clocks and the atomic timescale.</p><p>But, every 1.5 years, or so, on average, these two timescales misalign because of the Earth's inconsistent rotation rate. When that happens, we <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/leap-second-december-31-2016-12">accommodate with what's called a leap second</a>: a second that is added to the atomic timescale to realign it with the solar timescale.</p><p>We've been adding leap seconds this way since 1972, but we haven't needed one since 2016.</p><p>That's because <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/earth-spinning-around-axis-more-quickly-2021-1">Earth has spun faster and faster</a> over the last eight years for reasons scientists are still trying to understand.</p><div type="image" title="A standing clock on the side of a small town road." height="1413" width="2120" msid="108882045" hostid="261" sizebytes="468964"></div><p>As a result, scientists predict that we would need the first-ever <em>negative</em> leap second by 2026. Meaning<strong> </strong>we'd need to <em>subtract</em> a second from the atomic timescale, instead of adding one.</p><p>But this new research suggests that climate change is slowing down the acceleration of Earth's rotation and will delay that negative leap second to 2029.</p><p>Losing one second of time may not sound like much. But <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/google-compute-engine-leap-smear-deals-with-61-second-minutes-2015-6">adding and subtracting leap seconds poses big problems for computing</a>, so much so that the International Bureau of Weights and Measures voted to get rid of them by 2035.</p><p>Computers, financial exchanges, GPS, and <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/billionaires-companies-going-to-space-need-rules-2024-3">spaceflight</a> rely on extremely precise timekeeping, so leap seconds can lead to "serious malfunctions in critical digital infrastructure," the Bureau wrote in its <a target="_blank" href="https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/64811223/Resolutions-2022.pdf/281f3160-fc56-3e63-dbf7-77b76500990f">resolution</a>. It added that the negative leap second which may soon be necessary "has never been foreseen or tested."</p><p>"We do not know how to cope with one second missing. This is why time metrologists are worried," Felicitas Arias, former director of the Time Department at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, told <a target="_blank" href="https://affiliate.insider.com?h=195d94915c7be3972827c534262e8b53a0fc3dd3efb23944e2d14f69350381c6&amp;postID=6605b6fa669ae113e1c59c9b&amp;postSlug=human-activities-change-earth-spin-time-keeping-2024-3&amp;site=bi&amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fd41586-024-00932-w">Nature</a>.</p><p>While Agnew's study suggests we have more time before facing this worrying unknown, it's worth noting that<strong> </strong>Earth's spin is very difficult to predict, and the new study is not necessarily a definitive forecast.</p><p>"There's a very great uncertainty about this," Judah Levine, a physicist at the National Institute of Standards and Technology, told <a target="_blank" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2024/03/27/leap-second-melting-poles-climate-time/">The Washington Post</a>. "A few years ago, there were predictions in the other direction."</p><h2>How melting ice slows Earth's spin</h2><div type="image" title="Earth's core illustration" height="2680" width="4020" msid="108882046" hostid="261" sizebytes="474888"></div><p>There are three main mechanisms that control the Earth's spin:</p><ul><li><p>One is tidal friction, or the interaction between moving ocean water and the ocean floor, which slows Earth's rotation.</p></li><li><p>The second is<strong> </strong>changes in the ice caps that covered Northern Canada and Scandinavia during the last Ice Age, which made Earth more spherical, speeding up its rotation rate, according to Agnew.</p></li><li><p>And finally, currents of magma inside <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/rare-element-arctic-lava-suggest-earth-core-may-leaking-2023-10">Earth's spinning, liquid core</a> change irregularly, causing<strong> </strong>it to rotate faster or slower and altering the entire planet's rotation in the process.</p></li></ul><p>But now, a fourth influence has come to scientists' attention: climate change.</p><p>As average global temperatures rise, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/antarctica-thwaites-doomsday-glacier-melting-collapse-flooding-curtains-2024-3">polar ice is melting at an unprecedented rate</a>, dumping water in the oceans. As that meltwater moves from the Arctic toward the equator — a process that is raising sea levels and causing devastating coastal flooding — our planet grows slightly wider around the middle, which slows its rotation.</p><div type="image" title="glacier calving splinters of ice fall into ocean" height="1674" width="2500" msid="108882047" hostid="261" sizebytes="255576"></div><p>Picture a figure skater spinning with her arms above her head. Now imagine that she lowers her arms to extend them out at her sides, causing her spin to slow down. Earth's widening equator is having a similar effect on its spin.</p><p>"To me, the fact that human beings have caused the rotation of the Earth to change is kind of amazing," Agnew told <a target="_blank" href="https://www.cnn.com/2024/03/27/climate/timekeeping-polar-ice-melt-earth-rotation/index.html">CNN</a>.</p><p>Perhaps you've managed to escape the <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/canadian-wildfires-smoke-us-air-quality-2023-6">mega-clouds of wildfire smoke</a>, historic floods, and debilitating heat waves so far. But this new study reveals that the climate crisis is affecting even the most intimate aspects of our day-to-day lives. Nobody escapes time.</p>

Human activities are changing Earth's spin so much that it might affect how we keep time

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Earth may have helped give rise to water on the moon while shielding it from solar winds.</li><li>This defies a leading theory suggesting the moon needs solar radiation to make water. </li></ul><p>The Earth may have helped give rise to water on the <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-scientist-microbial-life-hiding-on-moon-south-pole-2023-6">moon</a>, scientists have found.</p><p>A cosmic tail of invisible electrons trailing our planet could have generated water on the lunar surface, according to a <a href="https://affiliate.insider.com?h=bf4ad4f46b0fc54c40d14537169f48fd35835333be058dfacc8d357651aa718a&amp;postID=65082c4977744faa55ce652e&amp;postSlug=invisible-force-earth-creating-water-on-the-moon-study-electrons-2023-9&amp;site=bi&amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41550-023-02081-y" target="_blank" rel="noopener">study published</a> on Thursday.</p><p>The finding may help scientists crack the mystery of how water made it to our satellite, and how much water will be available during deep space missions to<a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-helping-private-companies-build-business-moon-make-lunar-billions-2023-6"> planets such as Mars</a>.</p><h2>How does water make it to the moon? </h2><p>This is the billion-dollar question.</p><p>Space agencies and private firms are hatching big plans to take <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/moon-missions-why-astronauts-have-not-returned-2018-7">humans away from Earth</a> into our solar system. Having water-rich pit stops along the way is crucially important to these missions so future astronauts can fill up on air, water, and propellants along the way, <a href="https://www.planetary.org/articles/water-on-the-moon-guide">The Planetary Society</a> said on their website. </p><p>This is why the moon has been getting a lot of attention lately: our satellite is about 100 times drier than the Sahara desert, <a href="https://moon.nasa.gov/inside-and-out/composition/water-and-ices/">per NASA</a>, but recent research has confirmed that there is water peppered around its surface.</p><p>The bulk of the water is mostly seen on the <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-scientists-discover-moons-hidden-water-stores-2020-10">moon's poles</a> in the form of water ice.</p><p>There, the water is thought to have come from other planetary bodies — for instance, comets and asteroids that crashed into the surface over billions of years. Another theory is the water was stripped from the Earth as the moon split away.</p><p>Most of that water is thought to have since evaporated into space under the sun's intense rays. What's left, then, persists in craters that are permanently in the shadows. </p><p>Other research has found that a little water is also <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/glass-beads-moon-store-297-billion-tons-water-study-china-2023-3">created on the moon</a>.</p><p>In that case, the leading theory is that water is linked with protons that come from the sun. As solar winds blast the moon's surface, these combine with oxygen in the lunar soil to make water, per The Planetary Society.</p><p>But this new finding suggests there could be more to this story. </p><div type="image" title="Pictures taken by a satellite show the moon crossing the Earth." height="553" width="738" msid="103764267" hostid="261" sizebytes="22254"></div><h2>The Earth could be helping the moon make water</h2><p>The puzzling new observation, published in the peer-reviewed journal Nature Astronomy, suggests the moon could be making water even when the Earth is shielding it from solar winds. </p><p>The Earth is always protecting us from the worst of solar weather. Our planet's strong magnetic field deflects most of the solar particles that come our way. </p><div type="image" title="Solar Wind" height="271" width="542" msid="103764268" hostid="261" sizebytes="27330"></div><p>By re-analyzing data collected between 2008 and 2009 by India's <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/how-india-moon-landing-cost-cheap-compared-to-nasa-russia-2023-8">Chandrayaan-1</a> mission, scientists spotted that some water was being created on the moon when it was crossing the Earth's magnetotail, a sheet of plasma trapped between magnetic fields stretched outwards by the solar winds skimming our planet.</p><p>Notably, solar winds in the magnetotail are reduced by as much as 99%, per the study.</p><div type="image" title="A diagram shows solar radiation stretching earth's magnetic fields into long lines on the night side of the Earth, creating a sheet of electron plasma called the magnetotail. A circle highlights the magnetotail in the diagram." height="525" width="711" msid="103764269" hostid="261" sizebytes="56302"></div><p>The findings raise an interesting proposition: If even a little water can be generated when solar winds are virtually gone, do you need the solar winds to make water on the moon? </p><p>Per the scientists, it's possible the high energy electrons in the magnetotail could have "similar effects as the solar wind protons" when it comes to creating water, Li said in the statement. </p><p>"We suggest that although we have confirmed the importance of the solar wind as a major source of fast water production on the moon, hitherto unobserved properties of the plasma sheet" could play an important role, the scientists said in the study. </p><p>The findings add to the many theories that are seeking to explain water on the lunar surface.</p><p>Li and colleagues aim to work with NASA to monitor plasma and water content on the lunar surface to see if their theory checks out.</p><p>If confirmed, this could have wider-reaching implications, particularly with regard to water found in the moon's shadowy craters, <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1001523" target="_blank" rel="noopener">scientists said in an accompanying press release.</a></p><p>If you don't need the sun to create water on the moon, it's possible the water seen in these craters doesn't have to have come from comets. It could have been generated in situ. </p><p>"This provides a natural laboratory for studying the formation processes of lunar surface water," said Li.</p>

An invisible force surrounding Earth may be creating water on the moon

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Water leaking into the Earth may be wrapping the core in crystals, a study has suggested.</li><li>The study may help explain a weird area in the outer core that has long puzzled scientists.</li></ul><p>Water leaking from the surface of the Earth could be changing the outer rim of our planet's core and wrapping it in a layer of crystals, according to a study.</p><p>The experimental research could help crack the mystery of an elusive part of our planet known as the "E-prime layer," an area in the Earth's<a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/earths-mysterious-core-is-a-lot-weirder-than-you-think-2023-9"> outer core</a> that has long baffled scientists.</p><p>The research could also challenge the idea that the Earth's molten iron core is almost hermetically sealed, study author Dan Shim, a professor of Earth and Space exploration at Arizona State University, <a target="_blank" href="https://news.asu.edu/20231113-earths-surface-water-dives-deep-transforming-cores-outer-layer">said in a press release</a>.</p><p>"For years, it has been believed that material exchange between Earth's core and mantle is small. Yet, our recent high-pressure experiments reveal a different story," said Shim.</p><p>The finding "points to a far more dynamic core-mantle interaction, suggesting substantial material exchange," he said.</p><p>Another expert, however, said more evidence is needed to support this theory.</p><h2>We still don't know everything about our planet's insides</h2><p>The Earth's core is only about 1,800 miles under our feet, but it's more inaccessible than Mars.</p><p>Intense pressures and high temperatures mean we can't go down there to see what's going on for ourselves.</p><p>One way experts peer under our feet is by looking at how seismic waves are deflected by structures inside the Earth. And some of that data doesn't stack up with what we know about our planet.</p><p>One of these mysteries is a zone on the outer rim of our Earth's iron core where seismic waves unexpectedly slow down.</p><p>The zone, which measures between a few dozen to a few hundred miles in width, has tentatively been suggested to be a layer in its own right and was named E-prime.</p><h2>Water-logged minerals could spawn crystals around the core's rim</h2><p>Scientists haven't found a good explanation for that data yet, and that's important — understanding the Earth's core doesn't only help us decipher how our planet was formed and continues to evolve, but it could also shed clues on fluctuations in the Earth's magnetic field.</p><p>With their study, published in the peer-reviewed journal <a target="_blank" href="https://affiliate.insider.com?h=5041ec4f38cc3cb91d6e2d9202453037b1c0be2db5746f9e2d2efcb3a3ecc026&amp;postID=6565b191bb2875d248be26e3&amp;postSlug=earths-core-may-be-coated-in-layer-of-crystals-study-2023-12&amp;site=bi&amp;u=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41561-023-01324-x">Nature Geosciences</a> on November 13, Shim and his colleagues have put forward a new theory to explain the formation of the E-prime layer: that water leaking from the surface can reach the outside of the core and change its chemical composition.</p><p>This water wouldn't seep into the Earth as a liquid. Instead, it would be carried by minerals that contain a lot of hydrogen and oxygen inside their chemical structure — these are called "hydrous" minerals.</p><div type="image" title="An artist's illustration shows transparent crystals emerging from a fiery substrate." height="370" width="370" msid="105762071" hostid="261" sizebytes="28676"></div><p>To support their hypothesis, the scientists simulated the high-pressure conditions of the outer core in the lab. They found that subjecting iron-silica alloys — which are thought to make up the core — to the hydrous mineral in these conditions generates hydrogen-rich and silica-poor elements, which would explain the bizarre seismic data around the E-prime layer.</p><p>Meanwhile, the scientists believe the reaction would also spark silicate crystals. These would migrate toward the mantle, creating a dense layer of silica wrapping the core, per the press release.</p><p>"We found that when water reaches the core-mantle boundary, it reacts with silicon in the core, forming silica," said Shim in the press release.</p><p>The idea is a tall order — scientists tend to think the core gets very little material from the mantle.</p><p>If proven to be true, it could also rewrite what we know about how water moves around the insides of the Earth, and would have "profound implications for the geochemical cycles that connect the surface-water cycle with the deep metallic core," the scientists said in the press release.</p><p>Jon Wade, Associate Professor of Planetary Materials at Oxford University, told Business Insider in an email the theory "requires further supporting evidence" to garner widespread approval, he said.</p><p>There is some evidence that hydrous minerals can be sucked into the Earth — a 2014 study even suggested that there could be a reservoir of <a target="_blank" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/jun/13/earth-may-have-underground-ocean-three-times-that-on-surface">water-rich minerals</a> three times bigger than the surface oceans stored about 400 miles under the Earth's crust.</p><p>But it's not clear whether that process would bring water all the way to the core, and if it did, whether enough water would make it that far inside the Earth to trigger a reaction on a scale that could explain the E prime layer, said Wade.</p><p>"Even if there is a fair amount of water transported to the deep Earth, there are lots of places (3000km of mantle) to 'lose' water to before it makes it the core-mantle boundary," he said. </p><p>"So, could it happen?  Yes, maybe. Does it? Don't know, probably a very minor amount at best," he added.</p><p>For him, a "more likely route" would be that hydrogen was encased in the core by a reaction with the core materials, but at the point of the Earth's formation, for instance.</p><p>"Other mechanisms may be at play that achieve the same result. It's all kind of speculative but interesting to think about!" he said.</p><p>Shim agreed that it's not clear how much water can reach the E-prime layer, but said even a small amount of water could trigger enough chemical reaction to create crystals.</p><p>He added that his calculations show that he can explain the E-prime layer "reasonably well" with a range of water transportation scenarios.</p>

Earth's core may be coated in a layer of crystals created by water leaking from the surface: study

<ul class="summary-list"><li>Mars just scored another <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-discovers-potential-alien-life-evidence-biosignature-perseverance-rover-mars-2024-7">point in favor of alien life</a>.</li><li>Scientists discovered signs of an ocean's worth of liquid water miles below Mars' surface.</li></ul><p>Mars is looking more and more like a place for <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/how-nasa-could-tell-us-aliens-are-real-2023-2">NASA to find the first signs of alien life</a>.</p><p>Scientists discovered evidence of a <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/groundwater-pumping-causes-earth-rotational-pole-to-shift-study-finds-2023-7">reservoir of liquid water</a> seven to 13 miles below the Martian surface, lingering in the pores of the planet's crust.</p><p>They believe there's enough to cover the entire planet with <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/saturns-death-star-moon-mimas-may-have-a-secret-ocean-2022-1">an ocean</a> about one mile deep.</p><p>The water, if it exists, is <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/scientists-discover-underground-moon-cave-astronauts-could-live-2024-7">too deep to access</a> in the foreseeable future. Still, it's another promising sign that Mars could one day yield the most disruptive discovery in human history — that of life beyond Earth.</p><p>The discovery, announced Monday, comes just weeks after <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-asks-help-retrieving-perseverance-mars-samples-alien-life-2024-4">NASA's Perseverance rover</a> drilled a rock sample on Mars that could contain evidence of microbial life from a bygone era.</p><div type="image" title="gritty yellow ring with speckled solid rock sample inside" height="1400" width="1471" msid="112479167" hostid="261" sizebytes="125234"></div><p>Ancient remnants of long-extinct <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/why-no-contact-with-aliens-2019-9">alien life</a> are all NASA can hope for on the parched Martian surface. But any sizeable source of liquid water,<strong> </strong>like these potential underground reservoirs, is a place to check for active microbial life — even though water 10 miles underground would never see the light of day.</p><p>"It's certainly true on Earth — deep, deep mines host life, <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/seamount-new-species-schmidt-ocean-institute-expedition-marine-chile-2024-2">the bottom of the ocean hosts life</a>. We haven't found any evidence for life on Mars, but at least we have identified a place that should, in principle, be able to sustain life," Michael Manga, a co-author of the study and planetary scientist at the University of California, Berkeley, <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://news.berkeley.edu/2024/08/12/scientists-find-oceans-of-water-on-mars-its-just-too-deep-to-tap/">said</a> in a press release.</p><h2 id="aaa09a5d-96fd-42cc-8177-e2c4153862f8">Marsquakes helped NASA find water clues</h2><p>When <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-insight-lander-detects-big-mars-quakes-2021-9">NASA put a seismometer on Mars</a>, aboard its InSight lander, the goal was to peer into the planet's interior.</p><div type="image" title="mars brown planet with blue-black and white splotches in the black of space" height="1920" width="1920" msid="112479165" hostid="261" sizebytes="112220"></div><p>Though <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-insight-mars-lander-mission-ending-dust-power-crisis-2022-12">the InSight mission ended</a> in 2022, scientists are still sifting through all the data it collected in hopes of learning something new about Mars's depths.</p><p>InSight's seismometer instrument <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-insight-lander-missing-big-mars-quakes-2021-4">measured Marsquake activity</a>, mapping seismic waves. As those waves move through the Martian interior, their timing and the direction they travel are influenced by the material they're traveling through deep underground.</p><p>So, by measuring the waves, the scientists of the new study<strong> </strong>can tell what's underneath the planet's surface. It's similar to how the waves of an X-ray or CAT scan can reveal what's inside a human body.</p><p>Manga and his colleagues used mathematical modeling to determine that a deep layer of fractured igneous rock, saturated with water, best explains InSight's data. Their findings were <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2409983121">published</a> in the peer-reviewed journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences on Monday.</p><div type="image" title="illustration of a column cutout of mars planetary interior beneath the insight lander with a deep layer of cracked rock with water in the cracks" height="825" width="1000" msid="112479161" hostid="261" sizebytes="95798"></div><h2 id="a0164bcd-c556-4a64-a741-6c029fdf4ce2">A clue in a Mars mystery</h2><p>In addition to being downright fascinating and potentially overturning humanity's conception of Mars as a lifeless, dry red rock, the new findings may help solve one of the planet's greatest mysteries: where all the water went.</p><p>Mars's surface was once lush with water. Heck, the Perseverance rover is exploring a basin that <a target="_blank" class="" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/nasa-mars-rover-landing-jezero-crater-search-for-alien-life-2021-2">used to be a giant lake and river delta</a>.</p><p>But the planet didn't have a strong magnetic field, like Earth's, to help it hold onto its atmosphere. As a result, the sun's radiation wore away what little protective layer of atmospheric gases existed, and the planet dried up.</p><p>By about 3 billion years ago, all the water was gone. Some of it is still frozen in Mars's ice caps. Perhaps some simply vaporized in the harsh space environment. But scientists haven't really figured out where it all went.</p><p>The new findings suggest some of the water seeped deep into the planet's crust.</p>

Another point for life on Mars: Signs of liquid water discovered under the planet's surface

<ul class="summary-list"><li><em>This post originally appeared in the Insider Today newsletter.</em></li></ul><p><strong>Good morning! </strong>CEOs love talking about their wins, but what about their losses? The head of a failed supersonic plane startup detailed what went wrong, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/exosonic-ceo-explains-why-his-strategy-supersonic-airliner-failed-2024-11"><u>and how other companies might find success</u></a>.</p><p>In today's big story, President-elect Donald Trump is nominating the people <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/donald-trump-white-house-staff-cabinet-picks-list-2024-11"><u>who will play a key role in his administration</u></a> and impact the business world.</p><p><strong>What's on deck:</strong></p><ul><li><strong>Markets:</strong> Elon Musk wants to gamify "dumb" government spending, and <a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-leaderboard-government-spending-marketing-genius-doge-donald-trump-2024-11"><u>experts say it's a savvy marketing strategy</u></a>.</li><li><strong>Tech:</strong> A healthcare startup raised $100 million on a bet it could build an AI doc-in-a-box. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/healthcare-startup-forward-shutdown-carepod-adrian-aoun-2024-11"><u>Now it's shutting down</u></a>.</li><li><strong>Business:</strong> Internal documents viewed by BI show plans for Amazon's AI chatbot <a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/amazon-ai-chatbot-q-coming-to-microsoft-office-365-2024-11"><u>launching in an unlikely spot</u></a>.</li></ul><p>But first, the nominations are rolling in.</p><p><strong><em>If this was forwarded to you, </em></strong><a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/subscription/newsletter/insider-today"><strong><em><u>sign up here.</u></em></strong></a></p><h3 id="7fa5f018-5b05-4a37-a8dc-d3f89138bcb3">The big story</h3><h2 id="5fd547b9-ec52-41fc-8e08-4f4b27dd8097"><strong>Trump's new team</strong></h2><div type="image" title="Trump pointing" height="667" width="1000" msid="115302524" hostid="261" sizebytes="47760"></div><p><strong>President-elect Donald Trump is quickly fleshing out his cabinet, giving a sense of what his second administration will look like.</strong></p><p>Trump's slew of picks announced in recent days share a common theme: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-cabinet-picks-so-far-loyalty-resumes-11"><u>loyalty</u></a>. (You can find the running list of Trump administration staffers <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/donald-trump-white-house-staff-cabinet-picks-list-2024-11"><u>here</u></a>)</p><p>With <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/republicans-house-representatives-election-win-majority-2024-11"><u>Republicans maintaining control of the House</u></a> and winning the Senate, the president-elect will enter the White House this January with incredible power to shape the country to his vision.</p><p>Let's break down some of Trump's recent appointments and the impact they could have on the business world:</p><p><a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-nominates-matt-gaetz-attorney-general-2024-11"><strong><u>US Attorney General — Matt Gaetz</u></strong></a><strong>: </strong>A surprising pick, to say the least,<strong> </strong>the representative from Florida caused havoc within his own party when he led the push to oust Kevin McCarthy from the speakership last year.</p><p>Gaetz was also the subject of sex-trafficking allegations that led to an investigation by the very agency he's being nominated to lead. (The Department of Justice declined to pursue charges, but he'd been facing a probe from the House Ethics Committee.) House Speaker Mike Johnson told reporters on Wednesday that Gaetz had resigned from Congress.</p><p>He's also <a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/matt-gaetz-criticism-big-tech-trump-attorney-general-antitrust-2024-11"><u>clashed with the tech industry</u></a>, suggesting Americans have an "obligation to use" their Second Amendment right when it comes to <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/matt-gaetz-says-american-obligation-take-up-arms-big-tech-2021-5"><u>Silicon Valley companies censoring conservatives</u></a>. Gaetz's appointment requires confirmation from the Senate, which is far from a shoo-in.</p><p><a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/what-trumps-secretary-state-pick-marco-rubio-means-for-china-2024-11"><strong><u>Secretary of State — Marco Rubio:</u></strong></a> The Florida senator is an outspoken critic of China and a supporter of Taiwan. In fact, China sanctioned him twice, and his ability to travel to the country is somewhat in question.</p><p>The appointment adds another wrinkle to the heightening tension between the US and China. Trump has said he wants aggressive tariffs against Chinese imports, and Rubio has raised the alarm on what he views as China's plan to harm the US economy.</p><div type="image" title="Fox News host Pete Hegseth at a network event in 2019" height="2555" width="3600" msid="115302517" hostid="261" sizebytes="483180"></div><p><a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-pentagon-chief-pete-hegseth-world-views-ukraine-china-2024-11"><strong><u>Secretary of Defense — Pete Hegseth:</u></strong></a><strong> </strong>The Army veteran and Fox News host has been outspoken about the US involvement in geopolitical conflicts. Hegseth is among the growing number of Republicans questioning the US support of Ukraine. He also said he <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-pentagon-pick-pete-hegseth-criticized-us-involvement-ukraine-aid-2024-11"><u>doubted Russia would invade Poland</u></a> if it successfully took over Ukraine.</p><p>When it comes to Israel, Hegseth has been a staunch supporter. He's also pushed back against calls for a cease-fire and criticized pro-Palestinian protesters.</p><p>Hegseth's takes aren't limited to international affairs. He's been critical of women serving in combat roles and diversity and equity policies in the US military.</p><p><strong>Treasury secretary — TBD: </strong>Trump's pick for his top economic advisor is being closely watched considering the key role the economy played in the election. The two front runners appear to be Scott Bessent, a hedge fund executive, and Howard Lutnick, <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/wall-street-advisor-trump-lutnick-schwarzman-warsh-federal-reserve-2024-11"><u>the co-chair of Trump's transition</u></a> team and the CEO of Cantor Fitzgerald.</p><p>Bessent was initially viewed as the favorite, but Lutnick is <a target="_blank" href="https://www.wsj.com/politics/policy/trump-transition-co-chair-makes-late-play-for-treasury-secretary-f1b50c60"><u>reportedly making a last-ditch effort</u></a> to be considered for the job.</p><h3 id="77f31a4c-8462-4e3d-a71f-838cb79493fb">News brief</h3><h2 id="1fcd294b-3f53-425f-9f20-4093e8623b59">Top headlines</h2><ul><li>Silicon Valley investors Marc Andreessen and Ben Horowitz <a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/marc-andreessen-ben-horowitz-react-trump-win-crypto-founders-2024-11"><u>celebrate Trump's win as 'a boot off the throat</u></a>.'</li><li>Why SoftBank bet $500 million on OpenAI. SoftBank's Vision Funds CFO <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/softbank-openai-investment-explained-vision-fund-cfo-2024-11"><u>told BI why it went all-in on the startup</u></a>.</li><li>Amazon is shuttering Freevee and some insiders fear <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/amazon-shuttering-freevee-some-insiders-speculate-potential-entertainment-layoffs-2024-11"><u>layoffs could be coming in the tech giant's entertainment arm</u></a>.</li><li>Mark Zuckerberg just released his own NSFW version of <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/mark-zuckerberg-t-pain-get-low-rap-song-2024-11"><u>'Get Low' in a tribute to his wife</u></a>.</li></ul><h2 id="8120060b-ae66-48dc-b149-f0489a30ffa2">3 things in markets</h2><div type="image" title="A photo illustration comprising a black-and-white photo of Elon Musk's profile over a leaderboard with dollar signs that decrease down the board." height="1500" width="2000" msid="115302527" hostid="261" sizebytes="121084"></div><ol><li><strong>Loving the leaderboard: Elon Musk wants to gamify "dumb" government spending.</strong> Donald Trump tapped Musk and Vivek Ramaswamy to co-lead the Department of Government Efficiency, a commission aimed at slimming government waste. Musk has <a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-leaderboard-government-spending-marketing-genius-doge-donald-trump-2024-11"><u>teased a public leaderboard to track government spending</u></a>, which, if implemented, could keep the public engaged. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-vivek-ramaswamy-doge-government-efficiency-what-us-spends-2024-11"><u>BI took a look at what the US actually spends money on</u></a>.</li><li><strong>Inflation stays in line with expectations. </strong>October's consumer price index <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/inflation-october-cpi-consumer-price-index-federal-reserve-interest-rates-2024-11"><u>rose 2.6% compared to the same time last year</u></a>, representing a slight uptick from September's 2.4% report. Despite inflation heating up, the probability of the Fed making a 25-basis-point cut next month increased to about 80% after the report's release.</li><li><strong>Polymarket's CEO was the subject of an FBI raid. </strong>Shayne Coplan, the 26-year-old boss of the betting market platform that successfully predicted Trump's win, reportedly had his phone and electronic devices <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/fbi-raid-polymarket-ceo-shayne-coplan-nyc-2024-election-2024-11"><u>confiscated by federal agents Wednesday morning</u></a>. Bloomberg reported the raid was tied to an investigation into the company accepting trades from users in the US, which is not permitted. A Polymarket spokesperson said it was an act of "political retribution" by the Biden administration.</li></ol><h2 id="f4b54806-7f81-450c-ba32-92560d4fae9b"><strong>3 things in tech</strong></h2><div type="image" title="Forwards CEO Adrian Aoun with the Carepod" height="1500" width="2000" msid="115302521" hostid="261" sizebytes="394842"></div><ol><li><strong>Inside Forward's failed attempt to revolutionize the doctor's office.</strong> The healthcare startup Forward went all-in on its AI doc-in-a-box: "If Elon has the self-driving car, well, this is the autonomous doctor's office," its CEO said in 2023. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/healthcare-startup-forward-shutdown-carepod-adrian-aoun-2024-11"><u>But after raising $650 million in funding, it's going dark</u></a>.</li><li><strong>What some Tesla employees think about Musk's new government job.</strong> Some are celebrating stock gains, with the company's share price soaring nearly 33% year to date, <a target="_blank" rel="noopener" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/tesla-trump-stock-gains-internal-reaction-2024-11"><u>while others worry Musk will lose focus</u></a>. "There's this feeling that no one fully knows where anyone else stands," one manager told BI.</li><li><strong>A new stage in the US-China tech cold war.</strong> The focus of the AI race is moving from chip dominance to rare earths, the raw materials they're made of. Right now, China has the upper hand; <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/rare-earths-tech-war-explainer-chips-ai-china-us-2024-11"><u>here's how it's tried to outmaneuver the US</u></a>.</li></ol><h2 id="9260fa45-d397-4b3c-b4f8-4bb193976216"><strong>3 things in business</strong></h2><div type="image" title="The O's of the Hollywood sign walking away with film equipment" height="1457" width="1943" msid="115302520" hostid="261" sizebytes="350770"></div><ol><li><strong>Hollywood's leaving.</strong> The film industry is ditching Los Angeles for up-and-coming entertainment hubs like Atlanta and smaller cities alike. Some have been preparing for an LA exodus for years, but the pandemic ushering in remote work <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/hollywood-leaving-los-angeles-remote-work-tv-movies-money-streaming-2024-11"><u>helped provide the final push</u></a>.</li><li><strong>Too many videos, not enough mentors.</strong> Nobody knows how to do their jobs anymore because their companies aren't teaching them. Training is an easy place for companies to cut costs, but it comes back to hurt them in the long run. <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/job-training-broken-gen-z-mentorship-companies-employees-managers-2024-11"><u>Those who do invest often put their money toward the wrong fixes</u></a>.</li><li><strong>Exclusive: Amazon's chatbot Q enters enemy territory. </strong>Internal documents obtained by BI show the cloud giant is looking to launch a Q add-in for a rival suite: Microsoft Office 365. Amazon hopes the integration could expand Q's user base by <a target="_blank" href="https://www.businessinsider.com/amazon-ai-chatbot-q-coming-to-microsoft-office-365-2024-11"><u>piggybacking on Office's popularity</u></a>.</li></ol><h2 id="9f5d80ac-3466-429f-a50a-2ffbb70c65ff"><strong>What's happening today</strong></h2><ul><li>Disney, Brookfield and other companies report earnings.</li><li>EU reveals Q3 GDP growth figures.</li></ul><p><strong>The Insider Today team: </strong>Dan DeFrancesco, deputy editor and anchor, in New York. Grace Lett, editor, in Chicago. Ella Hopkins, associate editor, in London. Hallam Bullock, senior editor, in London. Amanda Yen, fellow, in New York. Milan Sehmbi, fellow, in London.</p>

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